Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Second Industrial Revolution (1870–1914)

5. In the late nineteenth century, the world entered the Second Industrial Revolution, in which Britain began to share economic leadership with other countries, such as:

• Germany
• The USA
• Japan

New Energy Sources and Technological Advances

At this stage, electricity and oil supplanted coal as primary energy sources. The invention of the dynamo made it possible to produce electricity, while the alternator and the processor made possible the transfer of electrical current. Electricity had multiple applications, including:

• Industry
• Transport
• Communication systems
• Leisure
• Lighting (enlightenment)

The Rise of Oil and Aviation

Oil began to be drilled in the United States in the mid-nineteenth century. The invention... Continue reading "Technological and Economic Shifts of the Second Industrial Revolution" »

Public and Private Urban Spaces

Public administration and places of entertainment include buildings intended for several administrations, education, hospitals, parks, and more. Private areas consist of residential zones, which are distinguished by income level, facility access, transportation, and the level and quality of services. The forms of distribution and planning vary across these areas.

Economic and Industrial Zones

Areas of economic activities include commercial zones that provide services to residential areas. There are also industrial zones, which are usually located far from residential suburbs; for this purpose, specific industrial estates are built.

Environmental Challenges in Cities

Air and Noise Pollution

Part of the energy sources... Continue reading "Urban Planning and Environmental Challenges in Modern Cities" »

Majolica

**To be decorated, parts were acquired at a lower cost, and thus the slab was imposed on metal objects.** He influenced all of Europe. The majolica ceramic body is covered with a porous coating with tin and painted with enamel colors. This technique, originating from the Islamic world, was widely used in the Iberian Peninsula and Italy, especially in Majorca, hence the term "majolica" (Italian *Maiolica* = Mallorca).

Once baked, the enamel is spread with a thin layer of copper or silver pigment mixed with ochre. It is then fired again, producing a total or partial metallization of the copper pigments. This gives the object a special shine and produces reflective effects. There is a wide color gamut.

Porcelain

Porcelain is the most refined... Continue reading "History and Types of Porcelain: From China to Europe" »

Evolution of the Economy and Demography (1875–1898)

With the arrival of Alfonso XII, the government presided over an economy centered on agriculture. Characteristics:

• Agriculture had very low-yield land; this was due to poor soil quality and the continued use of traditional working methods.
• Structure of land ownership: many peasants had no land, while landlords were apathetic and conformist.
• Agricultural crisis caused by meteorological factors (bad harvests).

Favorable Lease Systems in Catalonia

Emphyteusis: a lease agreement whereby the tenant held the property or house in perpetuity — effectively for life — provided the farmer paid the periodic cens (a regular payment). The contract could include the owner's agreement allowing the tenant... Continue reading "Spanish Agricultural Economy and Land Systems 1875–1898" »

The Slave Trade and the Beginnings of Colonial Brazil

Portuguese explorers discovered Brazil while seeking trees whose roots produced ink to dye fabrics. These woods were called *pau-brasil* (Brazilwood) and exported to Europe. From 1580 to 1680, Brazil was the world's leading sugar producer. The sugar industry was powered by the allure of profits and the ambitions of landowners who saw a European market demanding American products. Sugar production was intrinsically linked to the purchase and sale of slaves, the slave trade.

The Dutch West India Company initiated a process that attracted significant capital for the exploitation of sugarcane. Almost all of the sugar industry was located on the shore. Due to the lack of usable roads and methods... Continue reading "Sugar, Slavery, and Absolutism in Colonial Brazil" »

The Rise of Urban Society and the Bourgeois Century

The Urban Phenomenon and Demographic Shift

The population increase in Europe and the U.S. was remarkable. The European mainland population doubled, reaching 400 million, which strained resources. The U.S. received many immigrants, multiplying its population tenfold.

This population growth was characteristic of industrialized countries, most of which entered a period of transition towards the modern demographic cycle, characterized by declining birth rates and mortality.

Mass Migration and Urban Growth

Europeans commenced migrating; these migrations were facilitated by advances in transport and communications. Since 1850, migration increased, primarily destined for transoceanic locations, especially... Continue reading "19th Century Society: Urbanization, Class Structure, and the Bourgeois Lifestyle" »

The Phylloxera Crisis and the Rabassaires

The Catalan wine industry faced a devastating blow in 1879 when phylloxera, a destructive aphid, crossed the Pyrenees. By 1910, it had decimated all Catalan vineyards. The solution, implemented a few years later, involved replanting European vines grafted onto American rootstock, which were resistant to the pest. This crisis ignited a conflict between vineyard owners and Rabassaires (tenant farmers). La Rabassa Morta, a traditional contract, granted Rabassaires and their descendants the right to cultivate the land as long as the vineyard thrived. However, many landowners exploited the phylloxera crisis to evict Rabassaires or impose shorter-term contracts. This conflict persisted until the Second... Continue reading "The Catalan Wine Phylloxera Crisis and Agricultural Transformation" »

Constraints of the Industrial Revolution (1760-1830): These constraints are not only economic but also political and social. For the Industrial Revolution to occur, it was necessary for improvements to take place in agricultural and industrial production, market and political structures, and transformations that primarily happened in Britain. Apart from these constraints, it must be noted that Britain had several natural advantages, such as being an island, which reduced defense spending on continental countries, having relatively flat terrain, and numerous navigable rivers, which facilitated easy transport. Even more important was the mineral wealth in coal and iron.

The main factor was the agrarian transformation. The ability of British agriculture... Continue reading "Understanding the Constraints of the Industrial Revolution" »

The Decline of an Empire and Early Stagnation (17th-19th Centuries)

Spain, once a formidable empire, had been weakening since the late 17th century, yet the 18th century still marked a significant period of change and reference. The trauma of transitioning from an empire to a peripheral state deeply affected the nation.

Causes of Economic Weakness

The causes of this decline included poor governance under the Bourbon monarchy, Napoleonic influence, and persistent political instability, which collectively hindered the full realization of necessary reforms. Furthermore, the loss of colonies, coupled with widespread bankruptcy and severe economic, social, and fiscal crises, exacerbated the situation. While modernization efforts had begun in the 18th... Continue reading "Spain's Economic Transformation: From Imperial Decline to Industrial Emergence" »

Transport and Communications: Economic Drivers

The systems of transport and telecommunications are two basic elements crucial to boosting the economy and promoting regional balance. In recent decades, public investment in transport infrastructure has become a priority for the state, alongside the emergence of new telecommunications companies.

Infrastructure and Transport Systems

Currently, the main features of Spain's transportation systems are:

• Adaptation to Physical and Socioeconomic Conditions: The road and rail network has had to adapt to the high altitude of the peninsula and the peripheral disposition of the mountains.
• Radial Disposition: Terrestrial transport infrastructure is organized in radial networks, centered in Madrid, connecting the