Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution profoundly changed the lives of people and social structures. It completed the process of the disappearance of the English peasantry and led to the emergence of large cities that became radical industrial centers.

Transformation of Occupational Structure and New Social Classes

The occupational structure of the population changed significantly. As the agricultural population decreased, the number of persons employed in various branches of industry increased, leading to the rise of two new social groups:

• The Proletariat (Working Class): These individuals worked in factories or workshops in exchange for a salary. The vast majority were former farmers who left the countryside to work

Main EU Institutions and Functions

The European Union comprises several key institutions, each with distinct roles:

• European Parliament: Represents 370 million EU citizens. Its primary objectives are to approve laws and exercise executive control. It is elected by universal suffrage.
• Council of the EU: Represents the governments of Member States. It establishes political objectives, coordinates national policies, and resolves differences between Member States and with other institutions.
• European Commission: This body is responsible for proposing legislation, implementing decisions, defending the Treaties, and managing the day-to-day affairs of the Union.
• Court of Justice of the European Union: Organised to primarily exercise jurisdiction and ensure

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution began in England around the 1780s and subsequently spread to Europe and the USA. It consisted of substituting the workforce of people and animals for machines, and replacing craft workshops with factories.

Economic Impact

The primary sector saw a rise in yields and productivity. For example, in 1650, one farm worker fed 1.5 persons, but by 1880, one worker could feed 2.5 persons.

Causes of the Revolution

• Introduction of new machines
• Improved tillage
• Quadrennial crop rotation
• Use of fertilizer to increase production, leading to more animals and more fertilizer (manure), thus improving production
• A new ownership structure of the land: the desire to privatize communal lands brought benefits by allowing

The Enlightenment: 17th Century Intellectual Movement

The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement developed in Europe in the 17th century that questioned all the principles of the Ancien Régime (Old Regime).

Key Philosophers and Principles of Freedom

Philosophers such as Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot, and Rousseau defended the principles of freedom and equality, arguing that all people are born free and equal.

Economic Thought: Physiocracy vs. Mercantilism

In opposition to mercantilism, Physiocracy was imposed. The Physiocrats maintained that agriculture was the main basis for the wealth of a country. They defended private property, freedom of trade and industry, and opposed any state intervention.

Political Thought: Montesquieu and Separation

The primary or agricultural sector consists of economic activities related to the processing of natural resources into unprocessed primary products.

Traditional Energy Sources

Coal

Coal is a mineral fuel. Its advantage is abundance; its drawbacks are that it is a nonrenewable resource and highly polluting.

Producing countries: China, USA, India, and Russia.

Oil

Oil is a mineral composed of a blend of hydrocarbons. It is used after a refining process. Its advantages are easy extraction and transport; its inconveniences are that it is a nonrenewable resource and highly polluting.

Producing countries: Saudi Arabia, United States, Russia, Iraq, Mexico.

Natural Gas

Natural gas is a mixture of hydrocarbons. Its origin is the same as that of oil. It has been... Continue reading "Primary Sector, Energy Sources, and Industry Types" »

State Organization Under the Catholic Monarchs

Government Institutions

The Catholic Monarchs set forth a number of objectives, primarily aimed at strengthening the authority of the monarchy, imposing an authoritarian monarchy, and creating a modern state.

To meet these objectives, the Catholic Monarchs had to reorganize the state through a series of steps:

• The Holy Brotherhood was established in 1476. This was a general meeting of local guilds with political and judicial functions. It also served as a military complement to the royal army. This general meeting disappeared in 1498, although local guilds remained.
• The political power of the nobility was reduced, though their economic power increased.
• Control over military orders was achieved since

Globalization: Key Definitions

Three Perspectives on Globalization

1. This phenomenon occurs when cultural events in one part of the world have immediate repercussions on the entire global community. This is due to increased knowledge sharing and the virtual dissolution of borders and spaces, facilitated by telecommunications. (Definition adapted from the Instructional Dictionary of Social Sciences).

2. It is known for the globalization of economies and open borders, resulting from increased trade, capital movement, the movement of people and ideas, and the dissemination of information, knowledge, and techniques. While a process of deregulation, globalization is a source of multiple opportunities, yet it remains one of the biggest challenges facing

The Romanization of Hispania: A Historical Journey

The presence of the Romans in the Iberian Peninsula began in the 3rd century BC with the start of their conquest, lasting until the 5th century AD when the Western Roman Empire was dismembered.

The Roman Conquest of Hispania

The Roman conquest unfolded in several stages. The arrival of the Romans in the peninsula was intrinsically linked to the Punic Wars, a major confrontation between Rome and Carthage.

• Carthaginian Presence: Carthage held significant colonies in the peninsula, rich in metals and warriors, which Rome sought to control.
• Initial Campaigns: The Romans initiated their conquest from Gades (modern Cádiz), gradually dominating the south and southeast of the peninsula. They founded cities

19th Century Social Structure and Urbanization

Artisans and Urban Clusters

Following the disappearance of trade union privileges around 1830, cities retained a strong traditional sector, and manufacturing production remained a minority activity. Urban growth, coupled with the new liberal state structure, led to the concentration of various service workers in cities, including small officials, bank employees, and others.

The Humbler Classes

The humbler classes were dominated by women employed in domestic work, followed by young men in commerce and autonomous individual sellers.

Evolution of the Peasantry

Liberal land reform concentrated land ownership, significantly increasing the number of landless peasants. This led to short-term exploitation contracts... Continue reading "19th Century Class Structure and the Rise of Worker Movements" »

Developed Industrial Areas and Central Spaces

Developed industrial areas are central metropolitan spaces (Madrid, Barcelona). They experience subsidence or reconversion of important mature industrial sectors. Revitalization has occurred since 1985, as the advantages of their central location attract the most innovative businesses and social venues to Madrid and Barcelona.

Expanding Industrial Hubs

These areas are categorized into four main types:

1. The Metropolitan Crowns

   This involves the diffusion or relocation of traditional industries away from the central area, stimulated by the revaluation of the land they occupy for other uses. Localization often occurs in industrial parks designed to attract innovative companies.

2. The Suburban Fringes

   These areas