Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution began in the late eighteenth century. It increased production and brought significant changes in transportation, agriculture, trade, and demand for new technologies.

New Sources of Energy

New sources of energy and production led to the increased use of primary materials and the replacement of animal, vegetable, and mineral oil. The invention of the steam engine in 1769 revolutionized production and transportation. Water pumps were used in mining, smelting, and large machines, leading to the rise of factory workers. The steel industry and metals were used to build things, finding applications in steam navigation, ships, and increased load capacity. Railways emerged as a significant development,... Continue reading "Industrial Revolution's Impact: 18th-19th Century" »

Characteristics of the Industrial Revolution

Labor dynamics were significantly related to developments in the First Industrial Revolution (1R.I.), including the exodus of large populations. The origin of these changes was primarily England.

Scientific and Technological Progress

Key Innovations

• Steam Power: Machines powered by steam and mechanical spinning jennies were pivotal.
• Electricity: Investigations in this field gained momentum in the 17th century. Electricity was first used for lighting, and its application extended to productive structures, making its qualities most important.
• Oil: This oily liquid, formed by hydrocarbons that naturally emerges from the soil, became crucial. The oil industry began in the 19th century when the first underground

Stage Three: The Thirteenth Century

By the end of the century, only the kingdom of Granada would remain. This first stage involved the navies that facilitated the conquest of Seville, the Balearic Islands, and the coast of Valencia. The Treaty of Tordehumos had a significant effect.

Reconquista (Extremadura, Guadalquivir Valley, and Murcia)

In Castile, the Reconquista was led by Ferdinand III and Alfonso X, marking the capitulation of the main cities of Extremadura, the Guadalquivir Valley, and Murcia. Portugal occupied the lower Guadiana Valley, Alentejo, and the Algarve.

Repopulation (Andalusia, Extremadura, and Murcia)

Repopulation was challenging due to the vast land and limited population. The land was divided into large estates (donadios)... Continue reading "Reconquista and Repopulation of Spain in the 13th Century" »

1. 15th to 18th Centuries: Coastal and Commercial Settlements

Portugal reached India and the East Indies, dominating trade routes. The Netherlands arrived in the 17th century, establishing themselves in Java and Ceylon. France arrived third, settling in Pondicherry. England arrived fourth, controlling the rest of the Indian coast. The Company of Bengal controlled all commercial areas of Asia.

2. 19th Century: Intensification of Colonial Action

Colonial action intensified inland. Great Britain took India, the Netherlands took Indonesia, and France took Indochina. There was pressure on China to open its commercial ports, and then on Japan. Colonialism was now in the hands of the metropolis.

3. Late 19th Century: Second World War

• The United States,

The Advance Southwards

The Kingdom of Leon occupied current Extremaduran lands by 1230. With the union of Castile and Leon, Ferdinand III gave a decisive boost to the Reconquista. Starting from the Guadalquivir River, they conquered Cordoba in 1236 and Seville in 1248. Alfonso X took Cadiz and Murcia. Portugal occupied Faro in 1249. By the 13th century, only the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada remained.

Repopulation of the Guadalquivir

A significant portion of the territories were distributed as large estates to the nobility, clergy, and military orders that had participated in the Reconquista. These individuals hailed from Leon, Castile, and the Basque Country.

Livestock

The foundation of the economy was the Merino breed of sheep, which produced abundant,... Continue reading "Reconquista and Medieval Castile: Economy and Society" »

The Reconquista: Christian Expansion in Spain

The Reconquista, meaning "reconquest" in Spanish, refers to the historical period in the Iberian Peninsula of approximately 781 years between the Umayyad conquest of Hispania in 711 and the fall of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada in 1492. It is traditionally held to begin with the victory of the Asturians at the Battle of Covadonga in 722.

Key Stages of the Reconquista:

• 8th-10th Centuries: Territories north of the central Ebro valley, untouched by Muslim rule, and pockets of Christian resistance emerged. These Christians occupied largely empty territories, such as the Cunca del Duero.
• 11th Century - First Half of the 12th Century: The balance of power shifted between Christians and Muslims. Christian

Agriculture Fundamentals

Agriculture is the cultivation of land to obtain food for human consumption and raw materials for industry. In developed countries, it occupies less than 5% of the workforce, with high productivity due to advanced techniques. In underdeveloped countries, agriculture occupies most of the population, but traditional cultivation techniques result in low productivity.

Agriculture Market Dynamics

Its main objective is to maximize profit. This involves the specialization of production, the mechanization of farming, and the application of modern cultivation techniques. Effects: High productivity facilitates marketing, and large amounts of a single product can be produced, allowing for specialized transport, distribution, and... Continue reading "Global Agricultural Systems and Livestock Production" »

Fall of the Roman Empire

Causes

• Economy: Increased public spending, rising taxes, low agricultural yields.
• Moral: Relaxing habits, arrival of new beliefs.
• Politics: Emperors' indecision, lack of army loyalty, appearance of warlords.
• Invasions of Barbarian Peoples

Barbarian Invasions

Invasions were a culminating event, not the sole cause. Germanic migrations, Mediterranean intentions, and various factors influenced the decline, leading to the appearance of Romance languages.

Features of Barbarian Peoples

• Farmers and ranchers, patriarchal families.
• Naturalistic polytheistic religion.
• Barter economy.
• Oral laws.

Barbarian Groups

• Visigoths: Originally Goths, located by the Danube River, formed an independent kingdom.
• Vandals: Migrated to North Africa, Indo-European

The Progress of Industry in Spain

Energy Changes and Technological Advances: In the first third of the 20th century, new sources of energy emerged, primarily oil and electricity. The advancement of electricity occurred in two phases: from 1880-1914, its use was restricted to public lighting, and between 1914-1930, it saw widespread use across industries. This period also witnessed a new revolution in transportation, particularly with the rise of the automobile.

Advancements in information transmission were also significant. The expansion of the telegraph began around 1860, followed by the telephone and radio broadcasts.

Industrial Growth and Transformation

Major transformations occurred with the appearance of new industries and the consolidation... Continue reading "20th Century Industrial Progress in Spain" »

Industrial Power in Europe: Resources and Sectors

Europe is a major industrial power, despite a limited supply of raw materials and energy sources.

Raw Materials in Europe

Europe has a deficit in mineral raw materials.

• Iron: Deposits in Southwestern Great Britain, Germany, and Northern France have become less significant. Russia remains a major global producer.
• Other Minerals: Many deposits are exhausted, such as British tin, and French aluminum or Spanish copper. Europe lacks essential minerals such as titanium and tungsten, and is forced to import large quantities of raw materials.

Energy Sources in Europe

Europe is also deficient in energy sources globally, which forces it to import nearly half of its energy.

• Coal: Abundant in the past, production