Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Chinua Achebe: Pioneer of African Literature

Chinua Achebe (1930–2013) was an influential African novelist whose masterpiece, Things Fall Apart, transformed the landscape of African fiction both on his own continent and in Western society. His novel changed most of the West's impressions of Africa and its culture, replacing a simplistic stereotype with a depiction of a complex society still suffering due to Western cultural oppression.

He was born in Ogidi, Nigeria, and educated at church schools and at University College. He was the director of external broadcasting from 1961 to 1966, and then he launched a publishing company with his friend Christopher Okigbo, who died in the Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970). Then, he went to teach in the... Continue reading "Postcolonial Voices: Chinua Achebe and Les Murray" »

Bourbon Economic Reforms in Spain

The reformist spirit of the Bourbons extended to the economy and contributed to overcoming the economic crisis that had affected Spain during the seventeenth century. However, these reforms were not able to definitively resolve the serious shortcomings and deficiencies that plagued the Spanish economy.

Industry Under the Bourbon Dynasty

The industrial sector presented three outstanding features:

• Dominance of Artisanal Production: Production remained largely artisanal and little advanced. It was supported by urban guilds and rural crafts. The guilds, however, were a significant problem for development. Home work allowed cheaper production, but not necessarily better quality. Consequently, Spanish industry's ability

St Kilda: Life and Evacuation

Introduction to St Kilda

110 miles off the west coast of Scotland is a small group of volcanic islands. They are variously called Hirta, Boreray, and other local names, but together they are known as St Kilda. The cliffs rise to more than 400 meters (1400 feet) above the gray water, and this is home to millions of seabirds. Until 1930, a small colony of Scottish people lived there, whose community had survived for over 2000 years.

Life on the Islands

Life was precarious on St Kilda, located in the Atlantic Ocean well beyond the protective barrier of the Outer Hebrides. With an average January temperature of -10 to -20 ºC, the islanders were often isolated for months at a time by bad weather. They lived as they always... Continue reading "St Kilda: The Last Days of an Island Community" »

Defining Globalization and Historical Shifts

Globalization, as defined by Benko, is the global acceleration of the circulation of trade flows, technology, cultures, and information.

The Industrial Revolution: Cyclical Transformation

The Industrial Revolution was a profound transformation that cyclically affected the evolution of societies, causing significant changes in social, occupational, cultural, and production structures.

Three Key Revolutionary Changes

1. Progress in Mining Activities: Development of new energy sources, such as coal.
2. Increased Production Capacity: Expansion of production capabilities and the emergence of new manufacturing activities, particularly the fabrication of fabrics.
3. Shift in Labor: Industrial jobs did not require prior

Spain's Rich Natural Heritage

Geographical Distribution of Key Regions

The diverse natural landscapes of Spain encompass a wide array of provinces and autonomous communities, including: A Coruña, Lugo, Orense, Asturias, Cantabria, Vizcaya, Guipúzcoa, Álava, Huesca, La Rioja, Navarra, Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, Tarragona, Madrid, Segovia, Burgos, and León.

Mountain Plant Species: Characteristics and Habitat

Certain mountain plant species, typically found between 1000 and 2000 meters above sea level, poorly tolerate extreme heat and cold. These species require high humidity and prefer calcareous soils, although they also adapt to both calcareous and siliceous substrates. They are primarily distributed across the Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees,... Continue reading "Spain's Natural Heritage: Biodiversity, Protected Areas, and Key Species" »

The Crisis and Collapse of the Restoration System

The Impact of World War I

The outbreak of World War I in 1914 was followed by a declaration of neutrality from the Spanish government. However, neutrality did not prevent public opinion from being divided between aliadófilos (pro-Allies) and Germanophiles.

While there were significant economic consequences, negative social effects also surfaced, such as increased unemployment and rising prices.

The 1917 Crisis

By early 1917, discontent was widespread. Criticism led the government to respond by suspending parliamentary sessions.

• Military Conflict: A confrontation arose between the government and the military, as the government refused to promote officers serving in Morocco. In response, the military

Understanding Human History

History studies the past of human beings through time and space. To establish the order and dates of historical events, we use chronology.

Prehistory: The Dawn of Humanity

Prehistory starts with the appearance of the first hominins and ends with the invention of writing.

Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

Tools, or utensils, were carved from approximately 2.5 million years ago.

Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)

Some tools were made of polished stone.

Metal Age

Tools were made of metal.

Historical Eras: From Writing to the Present

History starts with the invention of writing.

Ancient History

From the invention of writing until the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

The Middle Ages

From 476 until the fall of Constantinople to the Turks,... Continue reading "Human History: Eras, Evolution, and Prehistoric Civilizations" »

The Industrial Revolution and the Rise of Class Society

As a consequence of the Industrial Revolution, the Ancient Régime—which was based on rigid Estates—disappeared, giving way to a new class-based society. This new organizational structure was defined by two major groups: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, both of which emerged from the former Third Estate.

The Bourgeoisie: Owners and Professionals

The bourgeoisie consisted of the wealthy class, primarily factory owners. This group was divided into three distinct tiers:

• High Bourgeoisie: The primary drivers of industrialization and owners of large-scale factories.
• Middle Bourgeoisie (Middle Class): Professionals such as lawyers, doctors, and teachers.
• Low Bourgeoisie: Small shop owners

Transport Systems in Andalusia

According to the importance it gives to the transport network, the Plan includes objectives to:

• Increase the presence of the railway.
• Articulate the territory of Andalusia.
• Move towards a sustainable transport system.
• Enhance the impact of infrastructure on regional development.

Plan priorities

The Plan proposes a strategy with the following general priorities:

• Prioritize the rail system and provide for high-speed transportation of passengers and goods.
• Develop the road network to connect with national and European networks, connect cities, improve accessibility and develop public transport in metropolitan, coastal and inland areas.
• In the port system, priority is given to strengthening commercial ports and providing links

Key Definitions in Tourism and Travel

Tourism

The activities of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business, and other purposes.

Visitor

Any person who travels to a country other than that in which they have their usual residence, but outside their usual environment, for a period not exceeding 12 months, and whose main purpose of visit is other than the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the country visited.

A Tourist

A visitor who spends at least one night in the country visited.

Same-Day Visitor / Excursionist

A visitor who does not spend the night in a collective or private accommodation in the country visited.

Types of Tourism by Geographic Scope

• Domestic