Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Navarre's Migration History

Emigration was the primary migratory flow throughout the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. This emigration primarily targeted destinations outside America, including France and, to a lesser extent, Guipúzcoa, often linked to the industrialization processes of those territories. Most migrants originated from mountainous regions.

In the 1960s, Navarre became a destination for Spanish internal migration, driven by the country's industrial transformation. Immigrants primarily settled in Pamplona and neighboring municipalities (e.g., Burlada, Berriozar), as well as other cities like Alsasua and Tudela. These immigrants largely came from major regions such as Castilla y León, Extremadura, and Andalusia.... Continue reading "Navarre's Population Dynamics: Migration & Demographic Trends" »

Defining Poverty: UN Standards and Thresholds

The United Nations (UN) utilizes two distinct meanings when calculating poverty:

Absolute Poverty Line

• This threshold is calculated using estimates of the cost of food needed to meet a person's energy requirements, to which the cost of other basic non-food products is added.
• The absolute poverty line is used by the UN for developing countries.
• Depending on the country, the figure is set at amounts like $1 or $2, representing the money required to prevent hunger in underdeveloped countries of Africa and Asia.

Relative Poverty

• Individuals are considered to be in relative poverty if their earnings are less than half the median income for that specific country.
• This threshold is used by the UN for developed

Industrialization in 19th Century Spain

In Spain, there was a predominance of the subsistence economy. Consequently, there was no capital to invest (due to a lack of entrepreneurs), no markets, and very old transport infrastructure. The traditional bourgeoisie typically used their money to buy land rather than to invest in industrial ventures.

The Basque Country: Economic Shift

Industrialization arrived late in the Basque Country due to the collapse of the traditional iron-based economy (as Northern European iron was better and cheaper), the loss of American colonies (which meant the loss of their privileged iron market), and many wars that ruined the basic economy, such as the Civil War.

Industrial Development in Biscay

In the mid-19th century,... Continue reading "Industrial Revolution in Spain and the Basque Country" »

Chinua Achebe: Pioneer of African Literature

Chinua Achebe (1930–2013) was an influential African novelist whose masterpiece, Things Fall Apart, transformed the landscape of African fiction both on his own continent and in Western society. His novel changed most of the West's impressions of Africa and its culture, replacing a simplistic stereotype with a depiction of a complex society still suffering due to Western cultural oppression.

He was born in Ogidi, Nigeria, and educated at church schools and at University College. He was the director of external broadcasting from 1961 to 1966, and then he launched a publishing company with his friend Christopher Okigbo, who died in the Nigerian Civil War (1967–1970). Then, he went to teach in the... Continue reading "Postcolonial Voices: Chinua Achebe and Les Murray" »

Bourbon Economic Reforms in Spain

The reformist spirit of the Bourbons extended to the economy and contributed to overcoming the economic crisis that had affected Spain during the seventeenth century. However, these reforms were not able to definitively resolve the serious shortcomings and deficiencies that plagued the Spanish economy.

Industry Under the Bourbon Dynasty

The industrial sector presented three outstanding features:

• Dominance of Artisanal Production: Production remained largely artisanal and little advanced. It was supported by urban guilds and rural crafts. The guilds, however, were a significant problem for development. Home work allowed cheaper production, but not necessarily better quality. Consequently, Spanish industry's ability

St Kilda: Life and Evacuation

Introduction to St Kilda

110 miles off the west coast of Scotland is a small group of volcanic islands. They are variously called Hirta, Boreray, and other local names, but together they are known as St Kilda. The cliffs rise to more than 400 meters (1400 feet) above the gray water, and this is home to millions of seabirds. Until 1930, a small colony of Scottish people lived there, whose community had survived for over 2000 years.

Life on the Islands

Life was precarious on St Kilda, located in the Atlantic Ocean well beyond the protective barrier of the Outer Hebrides. With an average January temperature of -10 to -20 ºC, the islanders were often isolated for months at a time by bad weather. They lived as they always... Continue reading "St Kilda: The Last Days of an Island Community" »

Defining Globalization and Historical Shifts

Globalization, as defined by Benko, is the global acceleration of the circulation of trade flows, technology, cultures, and information.

The Industrial Revolution: Cyclical Transformation

The Industrial Revolution was a profound transformation that cyclically affected the evolution of societies, causing significant changes in social, occupational, cultural, and production structures.

Three Key Revolutionary Changes

1. Progress in Mining Activities: Development of new energy sources, such as coal.
2. Increased Production Capacity: Expansion of production capabilities and the emergence of new manufacturing activities, particularly the fabrication of fabrics.
3. Shift in Labor: Industrial jobs did not require prior

Spain's Rich Natural Heritage

Geographical Distribution of Key Regions

The diverse natural landscapes of Spain encompass a wide array of provinces and autonomous communities, including: A Coruña, Lugo, Orense, Asturias, Cantabria, Vizcaya, Guipúzcoa, Álava, Huesca, La Rioja, Navarra, Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, Tarragona, Madrid, Segovia, Burgos, and León.

Mountain Plant Species: Characteristics and Habitat

Certain mountain plant species, typically found between 1000 and 2000 meters above sea level, poorly tolerate extreme heat and cold. These species require high humidity and prefer calcareous soils, although they also adapt to both calcareous and siliceous substrates. They are primarily distributed across the Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees,... Continue reading "Spain's Natural Heritage: Biodiversity, Protected Areas, and Key Species" »

The Crisis and Collapse of the Restoration System

The Impact of World War I

The outbreak of World War I in 1914 was followed by a declaration of neutrality from the Spanish government. However, neutrality did not prevent public opinion from being divided between aliadófilos (pro-Allies) and Germanophiles.

While there were significant economic consequences, negative social effects also surfaced, such as increased unemployment and rising prices.

The 1917 Crisis

By early 1917, discontent was widespread. Criticism led the government to respond by suspending parliamentary sessions.

• Military Conflict: A confrontation arose between the government and the military, as the government refused to promote officers serving in Morocco. In response, the military

Understanding Human History

History studies the past of human beings through time and space. To establish the order and dates of historical events, we use chronology.

Prehistory: The Dawn of Humanity

Prehistory starts with the appearance of the first hominins and ends with the invention of writing.

Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

Tools, or utensils, were carved from approximately 2.5 million years ago.

Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)

Some tools were made of polished stone.

Metal Age

Tools were made of metal.

Historical Eras: From Writing to the Present

History starts with the invention of writing.

Ancient History

From the invention of writing until the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

The Middle Ages

From 476 until the fall of Constantinople to the Turks,... Continue reading "Human History: Eras, Evolution, and Prehistoric Civilizations" »