Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Climate Factors in Spain

Astronomical and Meteorological Factors

Geography

• Strategic Location Between Two Seas

Precipitation

• Dry, Humid, and Arid Regions Across Spain

Average Annual Temperature Distribution

• Latitude
• Marine Influence
• Altitude

Pressure and Winds

• Breezes
• Local Winds

Other Climatic Elements

• Insolation
• Cloudiness
• Humidity
• Aridity

Rivers of Spain

The Spanish river network exhibits several key characteristics:

• Dissymmetry in the river network, influenced by relief.
• Parallelism with mountain systems.
• Alternation between rivers and mountain systems.
• Intense connection with the occupation of the territory.

River Flow and Regimes

• Absolute and Relative Flow
• River Regimes:
  • Snowy (Nival)
  • Pluvial (Rainfall)

Major River Regimes

• Oceanic Rainfall Patterns
• Mediterranean Rainfall

The Area of Urban Influence

Cities are central places supplying goods and services to a more or less extensive area, known as their area of influence. A system of settlements was proposed by Christaller in 1933. He classified central places according to the variety and quality of the functions they play and assigned them a hexagonal area of influence. The result is an organized territory resembling a hexagonal mesh formed by the areas of influence of each of the central places. The area of influence of cities is not homogeneous and is constantly changing.

• Madrid: Principal place of influence throughout Spain.
• Periphery: Nuclei of influence.

Following at an intermediary distance are the mid-range cities, and then nuclei of minor influence.

Hierarchy

Monsoon Climates

A monsoon is a large-scale sea breeze system characterized by a semiannual alternation of wind direction between land and sea, rather than daily. This phenomenon significantly impacts regional climates.

Monsoon Seasons

• Northern Hemisphere Winter: When the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) shifts south, a cold continental anticyclone forms over Asia. This system expels cold, dry winds from the northeast across the region.
• Northern Hemisphere Summer: The continental anticyclone weakens, and the ITCZ shifts north over Asia. This change in atmospheric pressure brings significant monsoon rains to India and Southeast Asia.

Tropical Cyclones: Hurricanes, Typhoons, and Cyclones

Tropical cyclones are powerful, rotating storm systems known... Continue reading "Global Weather Phenomena and Climate Change" »

Topic 2: The 18th Century Revolutions

Agricultural Revolution

The Agricultural Revolution saw remarkable increases in food production due to key innovations:

• Changes in farming systems
• Introduction of new machinery
• New property structures

The spread of crop rotation (e.g., the Norfolk system), combining cereal and fodder cultivation, eliminated the need for fallow periods.

Increased Production & Demographic Growth

Increased food production led to lower food prices in the 18th century, contributing to significant demographic growth. Birth rates rose, mortality rates decreased, and life expectancy increased.

Industrial Revolution

The concentration of workers in factories led to the decline of many handmade crafts, with factory production replacing... Continue reading "18th Century Agricultural & Industrial Revolutions" »

Earth's Climates

Climates are categorized into three main types:

Cold Climates

• Polar Climate: Cold all year; low temperature and precipitation.
• Mountain Climate: Cold winters and cool summers; precipitation increases with altitude.

Warm Climates

• Tropical Climate: Mild winters and warm summers; precipitation is scarce.
• Tropical Wet: High temperature and abundant precipitation.

Temperate Climates

• Mediterranean Climate: Dry summers and mild winters; characterized by estival drought.
• Oceanic Climate: Mild winters and cool summers; constant precipitation.
• Continental Climate: Cold winters and warm summers; maximum precipitation in summer.

Global Environments

Warm Environments (4 types)

• Forest: High temperature and abundant precipitation all year, located throughout

The Evolution of Spanish Cities

Pre-Industrial, Industrial, and Post-Industrial Stages

The evolution of Spanish cities can be divided into three stages: pre-industrial, industrial, and post-industrial.

The Pre-Industrial City

The pre-industrial city includes the development of cities from antiquity until the installation of the industrialization process.

Ancient Times

The first cities of the Iberian Peninsula arose in the era of Phoenician, Punic, and Greek settlements (7th century BC). These people founded merchant factories. The Roman age saw increased urbanization in the peninsula. Their legacy materialized in the emergence of new Roman colonies, some built on pre-existing populations, such as Tarraco (Tarragona), Carthago Nova (Cartagena), and... Continue reading "Evolution of Spanish Cities: Pre-Industrial to Post-Industrial" »

1. Population of the EU: Slow Growth and Aging

Almost 500 million people live in the countries that make up the EU. The population grows very little. The low birth rate, an average fertility rate of 1.5 children per woman, means that natural population growth is slow. The population over 65 years represents 16% of the total and has increased for two reasons: the adult population is very large, and life expectancy is high. The percentage of the population under 15 years is decreasing. The European population is aging.

High Percentage of Immigrants

The EU increasingly welcomes immigrants. In 2004, the population increased. Germany, France, and the United Kingdom were the 21 main host countries for immigrants. Later, Italy and Spain became priority... Continue reading "EU and Spain Population: Demographics, Migration, and Culture" »

Population of the European Union

Slow Growth and Aging

• The population is experiencing slow growth due to a low birth rate, with death rates exceeding birth rates by over 10%.
• Natural population growth is slow, with an average fertility rate of 1.5 children per woman.

High Percentage of Immigrants

• Germany, France, and traditionally the United Kingdom have been major recipients of immigrants.
• At the beginning of the 21st century, Spain and Italy became priority destination countries.
• Each community has inclusion programs with two goals: language teaching and integration into the core values of the host country.

Uneven Population Density

• The average population density is 114 inhabitants/km².
• Over 1,200 municipalities have a population density of less than

Europe at the Dawn of the 18th Century: The Ancien Régime

At the beginning of the 18th century, Europe lived under the 'Ancien Régime' (Old Regime). This was a system based on:

• A seigneurial agricultural economy.
• Absolute monarchy.
• An estates-based society.

Seigneurial Agriculture: The Economic Foundation

From an economic point of view, agriculture was the most important activity. Key characteristics included:

• Subsistence Farming: Primarily aimed at self-sufficiency, often using a triennial rotation system with fallow land. Autoconsumption was the norm, with few surpluses.
• Subsistence Crises: The economy was vulnerable to crises. Poor harvests led to food shortages, price increases, hunger, and misery, which often generated popular riots.
• Land Ownership:

The Meseta Central

The Meseta Central is a high plain located at an altitude of about 600-800 meters. It was formed primarily by the erosion of the Hesperian Massif, which emerged during the Hercynian orogeny. In the Tertiary Era, it was deformed, and the plateau was largely reshaped by the Alpine orogeny. Three main units can be distinguished:

A) The Old Paleozoic Basement

Today, it only occupies the western part of the peninsula. The erosion of Tertiary materials that covered the basement has exposed primary peneplains. These are elevations due to erosion or gently undulating surfaces. The peneplains feature inselbergs (very hard rocks). In areas where the peneplain contacts the sedimentary basins of the plateau, rivers create deep gorges.

B)