Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Deciduous Forest

Deciduous forest. Vegetation consists of trees that lose their leaves in autumn and regrow them in spring. Vegetation is very rich in tree species; these predominate, although in Spain only a few species are common, such as oak and beech. The understory is made up of hawthorn, juniper and holly. In spring, a variety of herbs, mosses and ferns develop, covering the ground. These forests are typical of oceanic climates and mountain areas.

• Typical understory species: hawthorn, juniper, holly
• Spring ground cover: herbs, mosses, ferns

Evergreen Forest

Evergreen forest. It consists of medium-height trees with thick, rough bark and branches that create large canopies, which cast shade on the ground to mitigate sunshine and evaporation.... Continue reading "Spanish Forests and Agricultural Systems — Dehesa & Irrigation" »

Urban Concepts: Situation, Site, and Areas

The difference between situation and site is fundamental in urban geography. Situation refers to the geographical environment, the position of a city relative to other locations or regions. Site, however, refers to the topography, the physical framework upon which the city is built.

Key Urban Area Definitions

• Metropolitan Area

  A metropolitan area is formed by the growth of a major city that merges with nearby towns.

• Conurbation

  A conurbation is a continuous urban area formed by the parallel growth of two or more cities of similar importance, whose urban areas grow together.

• Urban Region

  An urban region is a regional agglomeration formed by the growth of several cities that do not fully merge but are very close.

Urban Settlement in Spain

In Spain, a municipality with more than 10,000 inhabitants is considered an urban settlement. A semi-urban municipality has between 2,000 and 10,000 inhabitants and less than 25% of its population working in the primary sector. The diversity of cities depends on their past and recent economic and demographic factors.

Cities do not appear randomly. They were founded from a prior settlement in locations that meet one or more conditions facilitating the concentration of population and economic activities at that point.

The site might be a place with natural communication channels, such as rivers or major crossroads.

Coastal cities developed in places where conditions were suitable to build a port. Places of strategic and... Continue reading "Spanish Urbanization: History and City Formation" »

Globalization: Internal unit (countries economically dependent on others).

Ecological Footprint: Measuring human demand on spending and use rights.

Natural Resources: Resources we get from the physical environment.

Renewable Natural Resources

Resources that regenerate at the same rate as consumption, such as wind and sun. Critical resources include land, forests, fisheries, and water. Non-critical resources include wind, sun, and waves.

Non-Renewable Natural Resources

Resources where consumption is greater than regeneration, such as fuels (coal, oil, gas), recoverable minerals (metallic minerals, gravel), and recycled materials (metal minerals like aluminum and iron).

Biodiversity: The set of animal and plant species distributed across the surface.... Continue reading "Understanding Globalization, Resources, and Economic Development" »

The Industrialization Process in Spain: Until the Mid-20th Century

The industrialization process in Spain began with a significant delay compared to other European countries. This delay became a drag on industrial activity in Spain throughout the 20th century. By the mid-19th century, industrial areas were limited to the Catalan textile industry and the Basque iron and steel industry. The importance of foreign capital for the exploitation of mineral resources and the development of transport infrastructure was notable.

The First World War forced European countries to seek supplies in Spain. This allowed Spanish products to reach European markets as their own production was paralyzed. However, profits were not reinvested, and business structures... Continue reading "Spain's Industrial Evolution: From Delay to Modernization" »

Economic Globalization: Models and Impacts

Model A: Key Aspects of Economic Globalization

Items 1 to 8 model economic globalization's most famous aspects. Globalization responds to the term 'performance of large multinationals in all regions of the world', meaning the process of relocation of labor to cheaper areas. Small national companies must adapt strategies to survive as competition grows increasingly. There are other processes of culture, consumption, population, habits, information, and environmental problems.

2. The reference is the continuous exchange of goods, money, people, and information on a global scale. Within these international trade flows, which imply the exchange of products between different countries, and investment capital,... Continue reading "Economic Globalization: Models, Impacts, and Key Factors" »

Spain's Territorial Organization

Spain is organized by provinces and autonomous communities. Since 1978, the country has adopted autonomous forms of self-government, moving from a historically centralized model to a decentralized one.

Evolution of Spain's Territorial Model

Historically, Spain operated with a single centralized center of activity from the 17th century until 1978. Since 1978, it has transitioned to multiple decentralized centers of political decision, establishing state autonomy.

The Spanish Constitution of 1978, specifically Article 138, emphasizes the need for economic balance between the Spanish territories.

State and Autonomous Community Competencies

The State (central government in Madrid) retains exclusive competencies in crucial... Continue reading "Spain's Territorial Organization and Balearic Islands Governance" »

Climate Types in Spain

• Coastal Mediterranean Climate

  Extends along the Mediterranean coast and the Balearic Islands. Average annual rainfall is between 400 and 700 mm, higher in the north than in the south. Rainfall is highly irregular, with a maximum in autumn (due to the 'cold drop' phenomenon) and a minimum in summer. This situation is caused by the low humidity of arriving air masses. Temperatures are mild in winter (8-12°C) and high in summer (23-26°C), with a thermal amplitude between 12 and 18°C.

• Inland Mediterranean Climate

  Located in the interior of the peninsula, characterized by strong continentality due to the relief and distance from the sea. Rainfall peaks in spring, with minimums in summer and winter (between 350 and 600 mm per

Global Economic Systems and Social Change

Globalization: Integration and Neocolonialism

Integrating all economies into a capitalist system causes neocolonialism, facilitating communication and trade contacts between different countries.

The Role of Multinationals

Multinational corporations have subsidiaries and headquarters. They often move operations to benefit from favorable legislation (e.g., tax havens, lower labor costs), allowing them to gain economic benefits and increase their global economic power.

Technical and Market Globalization

Technical innovations have been a decisive factor, including advancements in transport (highways, automobiles) and rapid electronic communication (fax, mobile, email, microtechnology).

Market globalization means... Continue reading "Global Economic Shifts: Globalization, Sustainability, and Population Trends" »

Political and Institutional Context in Britain

Several factors favored the start of the Industrial Revolution, particularly the political and institutional context in the United Kingdom. Britain had a parliamentary monarchy where the Parliament was dominated by an economically active middle class that legislated in favor of business. Key advantages included:

• It was the world's leading maritime and commercial power.
• It controlled trade with its North American colonies and engaged in commercial activity in Spanish and Portuguese colonies, opening up new markets.
• In the 17th century, free trade was favored, moving away from commercial and industrial monopolies.
• The liberalization of agriculture provided a huge boost to the industry by allowing the