Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Inequality and Development

Market failures have the worst consequences for people, such as an increase in income inequality and persistent poverty.

Global Inequalities

• Inequalities within a State: In most countries around the world, these have increased over recent years.
• Inequalities between countries: These inequalities are greater than those that occur within any country.

Underdevelopment

When we travel to a developing country, we know we are in a different country, which is poorer than ours, and we could categorize it as underdeveloped, developing, poor, or less developed.

Characteristics of the Poorest Countries

• Low income per capita: These countries have a very low per capita income.
• Strong social and income inequalities: They usually have significant

... Continue reading "Global Inequality and Environmental Impact on the Economy" »

Prehistory

The prehistory period begins with the development of early hominids in Africa. The prehistory is traditionally divided into the Paleolithic and Neolithic periods, based on stone tool technology. The Paleolithic era starts with the appearance of humans, primarily located around the great lakes of Africa, which offered a favorable climate. Paleolithic communities were small, nomadic groups with basic social structures, practicing predation (hunting and fishing). They sought shelter in caves, where rock art originated. There are two main styles: Franco-Cantabrian (large, polychrome, static, and non-compositional) and Levantine-African (abstract, monochrome, dynamic, and small).

Rock art also included portable art, such as decorated tablets,... Continue reading "Prehistory and Ancient Civilizations: A Concise History" »

Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon

Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon married in 1469. Their marriage marked the beginning of the Hispanic Monarchy. This entity comprised the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, although each maintained its own institutions of government.

Castilian Supremacy

Castile was the most powerful territory; its institutions were similar throughout the kingdom. In the Crown of Aragon, the king's power was more limited. Castilian supremacy encouraged the dissemination of their customs, laws, and language throughout the rest of the territories.

Religious Uniformity and the Inquisition

The Catholic Monarchs secured from the papacy the right to have the Spanish Inquisition depend on the monarchy. They fashioned a... Continue reading "Isabella & Ferdinand: The Spanish Monarchy Begins" »

Livestock: Animal Husbandry

Animal husbandry provides resources for human use, such as meat, milk, eggs, leather, wool, and honey. The most numerous livestock species are cattle, pigs, and sheep. The agricultural sector has undergone profound changes in the last century. Scientific research has resulted in selected breeds that provide high yields and are resistant to many diseases affecting livestock.

Ranching

Ranching is characteristic of large farms where livestock graze in fields of natural grasslands. It requires minimal investment in labor, facilities, and animal feed. However, productivity is low. The types of livestock are typically cattle and sheep, whose products are intended for sale in developed countries and for self-consumption in... Continue reading "Livestock, Fishing, Aquaculture, and Logging: Sustainable Practices" »

Station Road: Road transport stations are concentrated centers for departures and arrivals of public transport vehicles which meet the regulatory conditions and requirements. Stations can be for passengers and/or goods.

Passenger Stations (Minimum Conditions)

• Access to entrances and exits for vehicles.
• Access for incoming and outgoing travelers, independent of the vehicles.
• A sufficient number of covered docks for simultaneous parking.
• Covered platforms for boarding and disembarking passengers.
• Separate waiting areas from the platforms.
• Sanitation facilities.
• Billing agencies, luggage and ticket sales, and information office.
• Other facilities, according to the characteristics of the services that each station has to meet, determined by the Minister

... Continue reading "Transport Hubs: Stations, Logistics, and Intermodal Terminals" »

Science in Disaster Prevention

Science plays a crucial role in predicting and preventing natural disasters. Specialized scientists utilize advanced tools and data to safeguard communities:

• Meteorologists study weather satellite data to predict heavy rains and flooding expected to occur.
• Seismologists monitor the Earth's movements with electronic instruments to forecast seismic activity.
• Volcanologists prepare and publish volcanic hazard maps and information for inhabitants of volcanic areas.
• Oceanographers have developed sophisticated detection systems for tsunamis, such as those in the Pacific Ocean.

Risk maps are a key tool in urban and environmental planning. They enable authorities to authorize or restrict certain activities based on the varying... Continue reading "Resource Management and Environmental Resilience" »

The Middle Ages: Foundations and Early Developments

Unit VI: The Early Medieval Period

1. Chronology of the Middle Ages

   Locate the Middle Ages chronologically, indicating the start and end years, centuries, and key events. Also, describe the subdivision into the High and Late Middle Ages.

2. Germanic Peoples and Their Influence

   Name six Germanic tribes.

3. Create a summary table indicating the political and social organization, economic activities, and beliefs of the Germanic peoples.

4. What is Gefolge?

5. Differentiate between the period of peaceful invasion and the period of massive invasion of the Roman Empire by Germanic tribes.

6. What were the Foederati contracts?

7. Germanic Kingdoms and Political Organization

   What were the Germanic Kingdoms? How were they politically

... Continue reading "Medieval History Fundamentals: Germanic Kingdoms to Feudal Society" »

The Spanish Fishing Sector: Characteristics and Production

The Spanish fishing space is divided into 8 regions, plus the major northwest zone.

Fish production has these features:

• Species caught are categorized in three parts: by their whitefish value, and by tonnage (sardines and anchovies).
• The primary destination of fishing products is human consumption.
• Landings experienced strong growth through 1976.

Challenges and Crisis in the Spanish Fishing Sector

The Spanish fishing sector is currently experiencing a crisis, characterized by:

• A decrease in the active population employed in the sector.
• A decline in its contribution to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
• A foreign trade deficit, largely due to high domestic consumption.

Problems in Fishing Grounds

Fishing... Continue reading "Spanish Fishing Sector: Challenges, EU Policies, and Sustainability" »

Housing Essentials: From Concept to Ownership

Basic Housing Needs

• Intimacy: Providing personal space and privacy.
• Hygiene: Facilities for personal cleanliness.
• Food Management: Ability to conserve, store, and cook food.
• Shelter: Protection from the weather and external elements.

Location Considerations

City Center

Characterized by numerous shops, services, and extensive public transport options.

Suburbs

Generally calmer and quieter, closer to nature, but often involve longer commute times.

Optimal Home Orientation

North-Facing Zones

Typically colder and shadier. Ideal for non-primary living areas such as storage pantries, bathrooms, or toilets.

South-Facing Zones

Warmer and brighter, receiving ample natural light. Best suited for primary living areas... Continue reading "Home Essentials: Design, Location, and Financing" »

Transportation and Communication in Spain

Functions of Transport

The growing number of exchanges requires rapid, safe, and affordable transport systems.

1. Offsets: Allows for the separation of population between jobs and residence, for work and leisure purposes.
2. Firm Level: Facilitates the movement of workers, ensures the arrival of raw materials, and the distribution of finished goods. A well-connected producer country with good communication fosters the concentration of economic activities. Developed countries have dense and varied transport and communication networks, well-structured, and normally without isolated areas, although these networks are denser in urban and industrialized areas than in rural areas. Poor countries have incomplete and

... Continue reading "Spain's Transportation and Communication Networks: Analysis and Challenges" »