Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Geography

Euskal Herria: End of the Middle Ages

By the end of the Middle Ages, the seven territories forming Euskal Herria were already constituted as we know them today. In Navarre, Pamplona was established early. In continental Europe, struggles between the crowns of France, Castile, Aragon, and England were determining factors.

The French-Spanish Border

The French state is on one side, with Lapurdi, Lower Navarre, and Soule in the Atlantic Pyrenees. Across the border is the Spanish state, organized since 1978 into autonomous communities.

• The Basque Autonomous Community has a status of autonomy and economic agreement.
• The autonomous community of Navarre retains its privileges with a "pacted" law.

The Autonomous Community of the Basque Country's Constitution

The... Continue reading "Euskal Herria: History, Governance, and Territorial Organization" »

Ancient Civilizations: A Historical Overview

1. Prehistory encompasses the vast period from the emergence of humankind to the advent of writing. It is broadly divided into two major epochs: the Stone Age and the Metal Age.

1.1 The Dawn of Humanity

The earliest humans (hominids) are characterized by their adoption of an upright posture and their ability to create tools and utensils.

1.2 The Stone Age

The Stone Age is further subdivided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age) periods, separated by the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age).

a) Paleolithic Era

• Humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers, relying on hunting, fishing, and gathering for sustenance.
• Life was primarily outdoors, often along riverbanks or in caves.
• The mastery of

Livestock Farming: An Overview

Traditional livestock farming involved diverse species coexisting in small farms, utilizing older techniques. Current extensive livestock systems have undergone significant structural transformations.

A) Structural Changes in Livestock Density

These transformations can be summarized by increased specialization:

• Livestock farming tends to specialize in meat or milk production. This has led to the replacement of native breeds with foreign breeds and the near-total disappearance of mixed breeds. However, there's some recovery of native breeds, supported by European Union grants.
• Extensive livestock farming focuses on weight gain in cattle grazing in meadows.
• Intensive or industrial factory farming, where animals are fed

Understanding Key Economic Concepts

Transport Networks

A transport network is the interconnected set of transport infrastructure (roads, railroads, airports, etc.) existing within a territory. Transport and telecommunications networks form the backbone of a region's infrastructure.

Cultural Tourism

Cultural tourism is a form of tourism driven by the desire to understand and appreciate our heritage. It showcases cultural heritage and serves as a counterpoint to sun and beach tourism, diversifying the tourism offer and attracting new tourists. This modality has been recently introduced and is gaining popularity.

Rural Tourism

Rural tourism focuses on contact with nature and is an alternative to traditional mass tourism. It offers several advantages,... Continue reading "Understanding Transport Networks, Tourism, and Globalization" »

**Factors Influencing Spanish Agriculture**

**1. Environmental Conditions**

• **Aridity:** A significant portion of Spain experiences low annual rainfall. The summer months coincide with the highest levels of evapotranspiration, further reducing water availability.
• **Temperatures:** The number of days with frost limits the cultivation of certain crops. Other plants require very hot summers. Temperature and rainfall patterns determine the suitability of different agricultural species.
• **Topography:** Topography significantly influences both climate and soil conditions.
• **Soil:** Spain features a variety of soil types. Humid regions are dominated by brown soils, with varying fertility depending on texture. In the Mediterranean climate zone, brown

Agricultural Landscapes of Spain: Defining Characteristics

We define agricultural landscapes as featuring rural areas. They result from the natural combination of factors, giving an overview of the farming practiced there.

Wet Spain Agricultural Landscape

Includes the north and northwest of Spain. It has a rugged terrain, with low, flat surfaces and a wet oceanic climate. Traditionally, it has had a very large population. The population is predominantly scattered. The peasants are owners of small landholdings. Land uses are principally for farming. Agriculture occupies a slightly extended area, currently specializing in garden crops and fodder for livestock. Cattle ranching is the most important economic activity, favored by weather conditions.... Continue reading "Agricultural Landscapes of Spain: Types and Features" »

Spain's Transportation Network

Roads

Roads are the most important means of transport in Spain, supporting 90% of domestic passenger traffic and 85% of freight traffic. They are primarily used for shorter distances, up to 200-400 km. The road network has a radial structure, connecting Madrid with the main cities on the periphery. Peripheral routes cross the Mediterranean and Cantabrian coastlines.

The road network consists of:

• State Roads (CERs): These are the responsibility of the State and include high-capacity roads such as toll roads and free highways, as well as regular roads. Their function is to cover routes of interest, ensuring overall road network links, access to ports and airports, and connecting different communities.
• Highways: These

Islamic Art and Architecture in Al-Andalus

Geographical and Historical Setting

Islam emerged between the 7th and 15th centuries, establishing a culture based on the new religion preached by Muhammad. Before Islam, the warring tribes of the region found unity under this new faith. In 622 CE, Muhammad fled from Mecca to Medina. This event, known as the Hegira, marks the starting point of the Islamic calendar.

The Quran outlines the simple, monotheistic precepts of Islam, influenced by Christianity and Judaism. These precepts include daily prayers facing Mecca, fasting during Ramadan, and a pilgrimage to Mecca.

Islam's unifying power led to the creation of a vast empire stretching from India to the south of France. Al-Andalus became a prominent province... Continue reading "Islamic Art and Architecture in Al-Andalus: A Historical Overview" »

Tourism in Spain

Spain as a Tourist Destination Since the 1950s

In the 20th century, Spain was often perceived as a backward country compared to the rest of Europe, as reflected in the writings of Ortega y Gasset and Victor Hugo. These authors depicted a stereotypical Spain of bullfights and tambourines, contrasting it with a Europe that was growing increasingly powerful and imperialistic. This stereotypical image began to fade with the transformation from the Franco regime to democracy.

Manuel Fraga and the "Spain is Different" Campaign (1960s)

In the 1960s, Manuel Fraga played a key role in boosting tourism, a strategy that continued into the 21st century with the slogan "Spain is Different."

The Rise of Mass Tourism in the Mid-20th Century

Mass... Continue reading "Spain's Tourism Evolution: From Franco to the 21st Century" »

Rural or Agricultural Area: Undeveloped land traditionally used for farming, livestock, and forestry.

EAGGF (European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund): Supports the link between multifunctional agriculture and land, increases agricultural competitiveness in rural areas, encourages diversification of rural activities, helps maintain rural populations, and preserves the environment, landscape, and heritage.

Extensive Husbandry: Relies on the natural environment, with livestock grazing on natural grasslands in wetter regions (northern Spain and mountainous areas) or pastures in drier regions. Associated with native breeds and traditional methods. While still important in certain areas, it is increasingly mixed with intensive farming.

Intensive