Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Understanding Population Pyramid Structure

The two histogram bars are arranged horizontally, typically along the X-axis (abscissa). Conventionally, the bars on the left indicate the age groups of males, and those on the right represent the female population.

The Y-axis (ordinate) identifies the groups of age, usually in five-year intervals (e.g., 0–4, 5–9, 10–14, etc.). The bar representing the lowest age group is placed at the bottom of the chart, with ages gradually increasing towards the top.

When detailed information is available (such as births and deaths per year), the population pyramid can be drawn with corresponding annual details (bars representing year-to-year data). The scale of the X-axis typically represents absolute values... Continue reading "Population Pyramids: Structure and Sex Differences in Demographics" »

The United States: From Civil War to Economic Powerhouse

The Civil War's Impact on the US Economy

The United States began its industrialization later than some European nations. The process was initially slow until the advent of the Civil War. This war resulted in a strong acceleration of industrial growth, ultimately leading the US to become the world's leading power. The principal drawback for European populations was that the industrialization process in the US was initially concentrated in the East and needed to extend throughout the entire country.

The US had several advantages:

• Vast, untouched lands.
• Most of the population was of European origin, unlike Asian industries. The European population that had not been absorbed by European industries

Trade involves the purchase and sale of goods in order to meet the needs of the population. This former activity has allowed contact between cultures. Subsequently, with the onset of currency, it was possible to give a more accurate value to goods.

Domestic Trade

Domestic trade takes place within a country.

• Wholesale: Carried out by wholesalers who purchase large quantities of goods, sold to producers and other traders.
• Retail: Involves selling small quantities directly to the public.

Foreign Trade

Foreign trade is what a country conducts with other countries, involving exports and imports.

The Trade Balance

The trade balance is the difference between the value of goods a country sells abroad and the value of goods it buys from other countries:

• If the

The Second Industrial Revolution: Economic & Technological Shifts

The depression of 1873 spurred a process of industrial and financial concentration. This era saw attempts to eliminate competition and create monopolies within specific markets, which eventually extended across national borders. Associations emerged where firms discussed production prices and deals for the domestic market.

Forms of Enterprise Concentration

• Cartels: Conventions among companies to reduce or eliminate competition.
• Trusts: Mergers of companies.
• Holdings: Financial companies involved in various businesses.

These concentrations developed especially in the U.S. and Germany. The power of some trusts often exceeded that of governments, making anti-trust laws difficult to... Continue reading "Second Industrial Revolution: Economic Shifts & Key Innovations" »

Historical and Political Concepts

Terror

A phase in the French Revolution characterized by radicalization, with Robespierre at its head.

Constituent Assembly

A collegial body tasked with reforming a constitution, endowed with full powers, or a constitutional power to which all public bodies are subjected.

Directory

A government divided among five people, called consuls, designed to avoid a tyrannical nature and maintain moderation.

Holy Alliance

Formed by Prussia, Russia, and France, it had an anti-liberal character, defending absolutism. Its members formed an alliance between the Throne and the Altar.

Revolt of the Privileged

The protagonists were the aristocracy and clergy who opposed the proposals of Louis XVI's minister. To avoid the Treasury's bankruptcy,... Continue reading "Essential Historical and Economic Concepts Explained" »

The Economic Importance of Agriculture in Spain

Contribution to GDP

Despite increased agricultural production, agriculture's share of Spain's GDP has declined from 40% in 1950 to about 3.5% today. This shift is attributed to industrialization and outsourcing, which have diminished the economic prominence of farming. The agricultural sector exhibits low productivity per worker, employing 7.5% of assets to generate just 3.5% of GDP.

Role in Foreign Trade

Until the 1970s, agricultural products were primary Spanish exports, consistently exceeding imports. Since then, the role of agriculture in foreign trade has decreased, with imports occasionally surpassing exports. Agricultural exports currently account for approximately 15% of total exports, including... Continue reading "Challenges and Opportunities in Spanish Agriculture" »

Business and Trade

Business consists of buying and selling goods to satisfy the needs of the population, performed by exchanging products for other products (barter).

Domestic Trade

Occurs within a country:

• Wholesale: Wholesalers buy large quantities of goods and sell them to other traders or companies.
• Retail: It sells directly to the public in small quantities.

International Trade

What a country conducts with other countries, including both exports and imports. It is collected in the trade balance and the balance of payments.

• Trade Balance: The difference between what a country sells goods abroad and what it buys from other countries.
• Balance of Payments: Records all economic exchanges of a country, both material goods, services, or financial.
  • When

Rockies

• Location: North America, extending from Alaska to Mexico
• Economic Activity: Significant gold and oil reserves. Includes Yellowstone and Yosemite National Parks.
• Population: Diverse ethnic backgrounds. Major cities include Albuquerque, New Mexico, and Denver, Colorado.

Andes

• Location: From the Caribbean to Patagonia, forming the world's longest mountain range.
• Economic Activity: Agriculture, including potato tuber farming, as well as cultivation of chili, corn, squash, beans, and fruit.
• Population: Inhabitants often reside at high altitudes. Major cities include Lima, Quito, and La Paz.

Alps

• Location: Stretching across France, Italy, Switzerland, and other countries near the Mediterranean.
• Economic Activity: Industry, energy production, and logging.

Internal Migration Rates in Spain

Internal migrations are classified according to time, place of origin, and destination.

Types of Internal Migration

• Seasonal or Temporary Migration: Limited duration and cyclical nature. Example: Picking grapes or olives.
• Permanent or Long-Term Migration: Classified based on source and destination.
  • Rural Exodus: Movement from rural to urban areas due to agricultural mechanization and increasing urbanization.
  • Intercity Migration: From small to large cities and between cities with different economic sectors, often for university studies or economic opportunities. Currently more significant in Spain than the rural exodus.
  • Interrural Migration: Conditioned by the economic exploitation system of the receiving area, such

Finance and Economy (Title VII)

19. The power to tax resides in the State.

20. Autonomous regions and municipalities can also contribute taxes in accordance with the laws and the Constitution.

21. The general State budgets are prepared by the Government for review, amendment, and approval by the Cortes (Parliament). If budgets are not approved, the previous budgets are extended. Once approved, laws can be passed.

Territorial Organization (Title VIII)

22. Spain is organized territorially into municipalities, provinces, and autonomous communities.

23. Principle of Unity: Several autonomous communities exist, autonomous but none has privileges over others. Principle of Solidarity: The most disadvantaged autonomous communities are helped by other communities.... Continue reading "Key Aspects of the Spanish Constitution: Finance, Territory, and Justice" »