Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Geography

Settlement Types

Dispersed settlement buildings:

• Sometimes isolated building construction (house)
• Small unit of less than one village population, which includes houses and other buildings. May have streets and common user items (sources, hermitages) but has no services (village)
• Very small group of houses at times with ancillary buildings (farmhouse)

The Functions of Cities

A city will have many roles, but sometimes one predominates:

• Residential dormitory cities: Mostoles
• Industrial: Detroit, Milan, Bilbao
• Commerce: prevails in some
• Culture/Study: Oxford, Salamanca
• Historic: Toledo
• Religion: Rome, Jerusalem
• Political/Administrative: can be regional (provincial capital) Madrid, New York.

Spanish Hierarchy and Local Network

1. National metropolis: Madrid and Barcelona
2. Regional

The State: Politics and Governance

The state is the highest social and administrative unit governing a territory. Key elements include:

• Borders: Defining its territorial separation from other states.
• Capital: The central administrative city.
• Currency: The official monetary unit.
• Language: The primary means of communication.
• Government and Laws: The system of rules and administration.
• Citizens: The people who reside within its borders.

Characteristics of States Worldwide

States vary greatly. Some are ancient, like Egypt, while others, like Serbia, are recent. Some are vast, like Russia, while others are tiny, like Monaco. Some are superpowers, like the USA, while others are less powerful.

State Functions

The primary functions of a state include:

• Maintaining

Agricultural Growth in Early 20th Century Spain

The active agricultural population continued to grow until the early 20th century for several reasons, including:

• Strongly protectionist agricultural policies
• Agrarian crises that strengthened after the end of the century
• Limited industrial demand
• Low real non-agricultural wages, which led to massive abandonment of the field

With the increase of the working population, Spanish economic backwardness held agricultural workers instead of expelling them. Weakly capitalized, they were condemned to low productivity and very low wages, leading to a miserable existence. This level of evolution is contrary to the rest of Europe.

Government Actions to Stimulate Manufacturing Growth

The government encouraged the... Continue reading "Agricultural Growth & Wages in Early 20th Century Spain" »

Retail Trade and Distribution

Retail Trade

Retail Trade: This business sells directly to consumers (small shops). It contrasts with traditional and modern trade.

Wholesale

Wholesale: This type of trade concentrates production and distributes to retail trade, often in central locations for production and consumption (Catalonia, Andalusia, Valencia).

Supermarkets

Supermarket: These are marketing outlet centers located in city centers and urban neighborhoods, typically exceeding 2500 m².

Transportation Infrastructure

Highways

Highway: These are high-capacity routes with separate roadways for each direction of traffic and no level crossings. They usually have two lanes per direction and are designed with broad geometric features to allow for high-speed,... Continue reading "Key Aspects of Retail, Transportation, and Demographics" »

Spain's Integration into the European Union and its Impact on Foreign Economic Specialization

Spain's foreign trade policy is characterized by accelerating economic globalization, increasing trade globally, and the expansion of direct investment and financial capital movements. This has been facilitated by trade liberalization, promoted by institutions like the GATT and its successor, the World Trade Organization (WTO), established in 1995. Spain, whose economic internationalization process started in the 1960s, fully joined this phenomenon of globalization in the 1980s. Its accession to the European Community (now the European Union) in 1986 was essential in this regard.

Spain now has a system of business regulation similar to that of other... Continue reading "Spain's Economic Integration into the European Union" »

Evolution of Latin American Culture: A Predominantly Cultural Mix

The evolution of Latin American culture is predominantly a process of cultural mixing between native, Spanish, and Portuguese influences. The indigenous populations of the Maya, Aztec, and Inca, who had great numerical importance and high cultural development, suffered a sharp decline. The most developed indigenous groups were virtually exterminated. Due to the influence of Iberian culture, there are large populations of the Caribbean and other ethnic sub-cultural entities that differ. Immigration played an important role in the settlement of some parts of Latin America. Between the 17th and 19th centuries, the dense population centers of the high plateau of Mexico, Central America,... Continue reading "Latin America: Demographic Shifts and Cultural Evolution" »

Rural Settlement

Types of Rural Settlement:

• Dispersed Settlement: Population lives in houses, farms, hamlets, and villages scattered around the field.
• Concentrated Settlement: The houses are grouped together, forming villages with amenities like shops and schools.
• Settlement Interlayer: Intermediate between the foregoing, presents isolated buildings, including town centers.

Dispersed Settlement Classes: Buildings

• House or Farm: Building isolated where people do farming activities.
• Farmhouse: Very small group of houses, accompanied by auxiliary constructions.
• Village: Small unit of population, less than a town, comprising houses and other auxiliary buildings.

Rural Communities

Rural communities are the basic units of settlement in rural areas. They can... Continue reading "Rural and Urban Settlements: Types, Communities, and Analysis" »

Euskal Herria: End of the Middle Ages

By the end of the Middle Ages, the seven territories forming Euskal Herria were already constituted as we know them today. In Navarre, Pamplona was established early. In continental Europe, struggles between the crowns of France, Castile, Aragon, and England were determining factors.

The French-Spanish Border

The French state is on one side, with Lapurdi, Lower Navarre, and Soule in the Atlantic Pyrenees. Across the border is the Spanish state, organized since 1978 into autonomous communities.

• The Basque Autonomous Community has a status of autonomy and economic agreement.
• The autonomous community of Navarre retains its privileges with a "pacted" law.

The Autonomous Community of the Basque Country's Constitution

The... Continue reading "Euskal Herria: History, Governance, and Territorial Organization" »

Ancient Civilizations: A Historical Overview

1. Prehistory encompasses the vast period from the emergence of humankind to the advent of writing. It is broadly divided into two major epochs: the Stone Age and the Metal Age.

1.1 The Dawn of Humanity

The earliest humans (hominids) are characterized by their adoption of an upright posture and their ability to create tools and utensils.

1.2 The Stone Age

The Stone Age is further subdivided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age) periods, separated by the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age).

a) Paleolithic Era

• Humans were nomadic hunter-gatherers, relying on hunting, fishing, and gathering for sustenance.
• Life was primarily outdoors, often along riverbanks or in caves.
• The mastery of

Livestock Farming: An Overview

Traditional livestock farming involved diverse species coexisting in small farms, utilizing older techniques. Current extensive livestock systems have undergone significant structural transformations.

A) Structural Changes in Livestock Density

These transformations can be summarized by increased specialization:

• Livestock farming tends to specialize in meat or milk production. This has led to the replacement of native breeds with foreign breeds and the near-total disappearance of mixed breeds. However, there's some recovery of native breeds, supported by European Union grants.
• Extensive livestock farming focuses on weight gain in cattle grazing in meadows.
• Intensive or industrial factory farming, where animals are fed