Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Unit 1: Geography & Relief Concepts

Geography: The science that analyzes and describes the Earth's surface and the interrelationships between nature and human beings.

Relief Concept: The modeling or formations of the land surface and ocean floor.

Big Relief Units:

• Depressions or Basins
• Valleys
• Plains and Steppes
• Mesas
• Massifs
• Sierras/Mountains
• Ridges

Unit 2: Weather, Climate & Landscapes

Concept of Weather: The state of the atmosphere at a specific time and place.

Concept of Climate: The succession of atmospheric conditions that occur over a period of not less than 30 years in a given area.

Köppen Climate Classification:

• A: Warm/Tropical Climates
• B: Desert Climates
• C: Temperate Climates
• D: Cold/Continental Climates
• E: Polar Climates
• H: Mountain Climates

Landscapes:

ITEM 4 Medieval: The Crisis of the 14th and 15th Centuries

1. Introduction

Beginning in the late 13th century, European society faced a major crisis due to hunger, disease, and wars. The 14th century saw the start of recovery, with population growth, trade development, and the emergence of cities. The last two centuries of the Middle Ages (14th and 15th) brought significant changes:

• Political: Disappearance of serfdom, birth of nationality, and growth of royal authority.
• Cultural: Emergence of secular thought, leading to religious clashes, emphasis on the individual, and new ideologies like humanism and reason.

The Iberian Peninsula experienced similar trends, including the first universities, development of vernacular literature, and Gothic and... Continue reading "Late Medieval Europe: Crisis and Transformation" »

The Genus *Homo* and Its Species

The genus *Homo* arose 2.5 million years ago in Africa from earlier hominids, *Australopithecus* or *Kenyanthropus*, likely coinciding with the beginning of a long period called the Pleistocene glaciations.

Features Distinguishing *Homo* from Other Primates:

• Upright posture leading to bipedalism.
• A deft hand resulting from standing, with the development of a longer thumb in relation to the hand.
• A large and sophisticated brain.
• The development of acute vision that responds perfectly to the commands of the brain.

These qualities enabled the development of different techniques. Thanks to practical knowledge transmitted culturally, *Homo* species began manufacturing and using increasingly sophisticated and efficient instruments... Continue reading "Evolution of the Genus Homo: From Africa to the World" »

Dominican Republic Facts

Political Geography and History

The division of the state is studied by political geography.

Agreements and treaties that legalized the division of the island into two countries include: Nijmegen, Ryswick, San Miguel de la Atalaya, and Aranjuez.

In the pre-Columbian period, the island of Santo Domingo was politically divided into Chiefdoms, which were Marién, Maguá, Jaragua, and Maguana.

Population Factors

Variables influencing population growth include: Natalidad (birth rate), mortality, immigration, and emigration.

Economy and Resources

Which of these minerals is more profitable for the country?

1. Silver and gold
2. Gold and ferronickel
3. Marble and nickel
4. Nickel and silver

The sectors comprising the economy are:

1. Primary, secondary,

Population Growth and Migration

Improvements in diet, health, and medical advances, such as the work of Pasteur and Koch, ushered in a new phase in European medicine. They managed to stop major epidemics. The decline in mortality, along with the decline in infant mortality, led to an increase in life expectancy and a parallel increase in income per capita. However, this did not cause a European population explosion. Imbalances in wealth distribution drove many people to emigrate. In the 19th century, British and Irish emigrants went to the U.S., Canada, and Australia, while Italians and Slavs went to Latin America. The causes of these movements included rural overpopulation, low industrial wages, and unemployment. People sought opportunities... Continue reading "19th Century Progress: Population, Energy, Transport & Industry" »

Spain's Top Tourist Areas and Types

Spain boasts numerous spaces with a high influx of tourists, both foreign and domestic. The highest densities occur in areas focused on sun and beach tourism in the Balearic Islands, Canary Islands, and the Mediterranean coastal region. Cultural tourism is prominent in Madrid. Average densities are found along the northwestern and northern coasts, offering sightseeing opportunities. Isolated areas exist, including ski resorts, rural tourism destinations, and historic cities.

Tourist areas vary according to their use, with some experiencing above-average seasonal tourism and others offering stabilized or extended stays related to historical points of interest.

Heritage and Beach Tourist Areas

The Balearic Islands,... Continue reading "Top Tourist Destinations in Spain: Beaches, Culture & Nature" »

The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages

The long period is divided into three phases:

• High Middle Ages (8th-10th Centuries): Peak of Al-Andalus and the beginning of the Reconquista.
• Middle Ages (11th-13th Centuries): Reconquest, repopulation progress, and Muslims divided into Taifa kingdoms.
• Late Middle Ages (14th-15th Centuries): Extended crisis and triumph of the Christian kings, taking the last Andalusi territory.

Economy

Rural development activities and the importance of handicrafts in trade and monetary boom towns.

Society

Two groups of Arab society: Arab nobility and the Jewish Berbers, Mozarabs, and slaves.

Religion

Muladis: Relatively peaceful coexistence of the three monotheistic religions until the 11th century.

Culture and Science

Philosophy... Continue reading "Iberian Peninsula Medieval History & Culture" »

Elements of Agricultural Landscapes

Plots

Plots are the basic divisions of the agricultural landscape. They can be classified according to:

• Size: Large, medium, or small.
• Shape: Irregular (characteristic of spontaneous occupation of space) or regular.
• Boundaries: Open or closed, surrounded by trees, hedges, or fences.

An exploitation is a plot or set of plots, even if not contiguous, worked by the same farmer, regardless of ownership.

Agricultural Uses

Agriculture is the practice of farming for the cultivation of vegetables, fodder, or industrial crops intended for human or animal consumption or industrial transformation.

Cropping Systems

Cropping systems are the techniques used by farmers for agricultural production and vary according to:

• Crop Variety:

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution began in the late eighteenth century. It increased production and brought significant changes in transportation, agriculture, trade, and demand for new technologies.

New Sources of Energy

New sources of energy and production led to the increased use of primary materials and the replacement of animal, vegetable, and mineral oil. The invention of the steam engine in 1769 revolutionized production and transportation. Water pumps were used in mining, smelting, and large machines, leading to the rise of factory workers. The steel industry and metals were used to build things, finding applications in steam navigation, ships, and increased load capacity. Railways emerged as a significant development,... Continue reading "Industrial Revolution's Impact: 18th-19th Century" »

Stage Three: The Thirteenth Century

By the end of the century, only the kingdom of Granada would remain. This first stage involved the navies that facilitated the conquest of Seville, the Balearic Islands, and the coast of Valencia. The Treaty of Tordehumos had a significant effect.

Reconquista (Extremadura, Guadalquivir Valley, and Murcia)

In Castile, the Reconquista was led by Ferdinand III and Alfonso X, marking the capitulation of the main cities of Extremadura, the Guadalquivir Valley, and Murcia. Portugal occupied the lower Guadiana Valley, Alentejo, and the Algarve.

Repopulation (Andalusia, Extremadura, and Murcia)

Repopulation was challenging due to the vast land and limited population. The land was divided into large estates (donadios)... Continue reading "Reconquista and Repopulation of Spain in the 13th Century" »