Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Infant mortality: Number of deaths among the population under one year old in a year and place.

Movement and spatial mobility: Transfer of population from one place to another, i.e., migration.

Natural movements: These reflect the growth or decrease in the number of inhabitants of a place, taking into account births and deaths.

Malthusianism: Theory that defends limiting population growth through birth control practices.

Municipal register: Record of inhabitants of a municipality; the data are similar to the census.

De jure population: Sum of present and absent residents in a municipality; this includes registered foreigners and their families.

De facto population: Sum of present residents and passers-by in a municipality at the time of the census,... Continue reading "Population Dynamics: Key Terms and Concepts" »

Understanding Urban Planning: Key Concepts

Metropolitan Area: A large urban extension surrounding a major city, which covers several municipalities, among which there are significant economic and social relations.

Peri-urban or Suburban Area: An imprecise boundary zone where soils are mixed and rural lifestyles and the city coexist.

Old Town: The part of the city from its beginnings to the 19th-century industrialization.

City: A core population of over 10,000 people, characterized morphologically by its high density of buildings, dominated by high buildings and collective housing, which usually dominate economic activities of secondary and tertiary sectors, with a more dynamic culture and less traditional social relations and condition of the organization... Continue reading "Understanding Urban Planning: Key Concepts and Definitions" »

Economy in 18th Century Spain

Agriculture

Agriculture was the key economic sector, employing the vast majority of the population and providing almost all income. It was characterized by technical backwardness, the dominance of dry farming, and the prevalence of the Mediterranean trilogy. Cattle damaged farmland, leading to conflicts between farmers and the Mesta.

Frequent subsistence crises occurred, with poor harvests causing price increases, market shortages, and widespread hunger.

The backwardness of agriculture was related to land ownership, a legacy of the feudal system. Landowners were a minority, while the majority of peasants worked land that was not their own.

Land was often linked, meaning owners could not sell, donate, or freely bequeath... Continue reading "18th Century Spanish Economy: Agriculture, Industry, and Trade" »

**_Colonial Imperialism_**

Historical Context

Colonial imperialism was a phenomenon that emerged as a product of the historical, colonial, industrial, and capitalist revolution of the 19th century (1870-1914).

Unlike the old empires of the medieval era, contemporary colonialism was characterized by the conquest and economic exploitation of certain territories. Colonies were not integrated into the metropolis, which ruled in its exclusive right and exploited the human and material resources of the colonies. A minority of soldiers and businessmen led this exploitation.

**_Factors or Causes of Colonial Imperialism_**

1. Economic and Social Factors

• **Need for Resources:** Colonies were needed to provide food for a rapidly growing population in Europe,

19th Century City: Growth and Transformation

With the start of the first industrial revolution, the city experienced great growth and a remarkable transformation:

• Trams and trains allowed the urban space to be extended on the surface. Improved building techniques and the generalization of lifts allowed buildings to grow in height, with taller structures.
• Population growth necessitated the demolition of city walls and the design of new urban plans.

The extension of the town took place along the tram and rail lines, taking a tentacular form. The transport network was radial.

The city center brought together economic activities, except for industry, which was located on the outskirts.

In the historical center, planned neighborhoods with a grid road

Territorial Balance and Development

Areas of Development and Territorial Balance

To balance regional logistics centers and their geographical position, Spain has always been a land of passage between Europe, the Iberian Peninsula, and North Africa, facilitating trade and transit of goods and people, both through the corridor of the Ebro and the Mediterranean corridor, as well as by sea.

This fact, and its strong industrial activity, encourage that Catalonia is a first-class logistics center in the European context.

Logistics platforms are fundamental logistics infrastructure, designed to support logistics and freight, and are therefore necessary to ensure supply to production and consumption. They are connected with one or more high-capacity roads... Continue reading "Territorial Balance and Development in Spain: Logistics Hubs" »

1. The Beginnings of Christianity

The early events of the Christian era mark the birth of Christianity as a doctrine, ideology, and state faith. This religious movement continued until 313 AD.

2. The Birth of Islam

In 570 AD, Muhammad was born in Mecca. An orphan, he worked in a caravan company owned by Khadija, a wealthy widow. Knowledgeable in Judaism and Christianity, he began preaching a religion recognizing one God, Allah, in 610 AD. Initially facing opposition from Mecca's inhabitants, Muhammad fled to Yathrib in 622 AD. This flight, known as the Hegira, marks the beginning of the Islamic era. After raising an army and conquering Mecca, Islam gained widespread acceptance.

3. The Expansion of Islam

The Muslim expansion, initiated by Muhammad... Continue reading "Medieval History: Christianity, Islam, Crusades, and the Rise of Capitalism" »

The Inca Civilization

The origin of the Incas is estimated to have been in the late 12th century when a small tribe settled in the valley of Cuzco. They founded their capital there and later became a vast and powerful empire that kept their traditions, myths, and legends, like other peoples on this continent.

Their economic activities were:

• Agriculture
• Trade
• Metalworking
• Hunting
• Fishing

The Maya Civilization

When the Maya flourished, theirs was an empire that covered all of Mesoamerica. They lived in the jungles of Peten, Guatemala, part of Yucatan, western Honduras, and El Salvador. The Maya flourished between the years 300-900 AD, a time known as the Classic Period. But suddenly, at their peak, they collapsed and disappeared. Two hundred years later,... Continue reading "Inca, Maya, and Aztec Civilizations: History & Culture" »

Primary Sector: Agriculture and Raw Materials

The primary or agricultural sector consists of economic activities related to the transformation of natural resources into unprocessed primary products. These primary products are often used as raw materials in industrial production. The main activities of the primary sector are agriculture, mining, livestock, forestry, apiculture, aquaculture, fishing, and hunting. Industrial processes that are limited to packing, preparation, or purification of natural resources are often considered part of the primary sector as well, especially if the product is difficult to transport long distances under normal conditions. The primary sector is often a significant part of developing countries' economies.

Secondary

Wood: Definition and Environmental Impact

Wood is a relatively tough, fibrous substance found in the trunks of trees, beneath the bark. It serves as a fundamental raw material for the production of numerous products. However, the environmental impact of its harvesting has led to the destruction of large forests, either for timber extraction or to adapt land for other uses.

Paper: Material and Characteristics

Paper is a material derived from cellulose. Its characteristics and function vary significantly depending on the manufacturing process.

Carton: Composition and Properties

Carton (cardboard) is a material made of several superimposed layers of paper, based on either virgin fiber or recycled paper. Carton is generally thicker, harder, and stronger... Continue reading "Materials & Mining: Definitions, Uses, and Environmental Impact" »