Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Geography and Environment

• Acid rain: Phenomenon that occurs due to the concentration of nitrogen and sulfur gases in the atmosphere.
• Aquifer: Geological formation that allows the circulation of water.
• Arid area: Area where water has no river outlet to the sea.
• Coast: Land slope.
• Desertification: A process by which land that does not have desert weather becomes desertified.
• Earthquake: A sudden and violent shaking of the ground, sometimes causing great destruction, as a result of movements within the earth's crust or volcanic action.
• Erosion: The process of intact soil wear (rock).
• Estuary: The tidal mouth of a large river, where the tide meets the stream.
• Fallow: Land left unplanted to recover its fertility.
• Fault: A discontinuity forming a rock fracture

Chart Types: Linear, bars, pyramids, and sector bars.
Types of Maps:

• City maps
• Quantitative maps (numerical values to express different information)
• Choropleth maps (areas with colors or patterns)
• Cartograms (with table values)

Physical Geography: Reliefs. Political Geography: The counties. Source: Year, topic.

It is not easy to define the concept of a city; there are various criteria to define a city that we must consider, as there are no separate criteria.

Criteria:

• Density and Continuity: A very small space where people live. Density: Number of inhabitants per unit area.
• Economic Activity Criteria: Most of the population works in the primary sector, while others work in secondary and tertiary sectors. The organization and territorial influence of

The Four Stages of Spanish Industrialization

Spanish industrialization is the result of a process that took place primarily in four distinct stages, leading to the creation of industrial spaces.

Stage 1: Rise of Industrial Centers (Mid-19th Century – 1900)

This period saw the rise of Catalan and Basque industrial sources within a predominantly agricultural context.

Stage 2: Growth and Protectionism (1900–1936)

Growth occurred through increased domestic investment, industrial protectionism, and the promotion of public works. During the Civil War and postwar period, growth was interrupted by the effects of conflict and Franco's autarkic policies.

Stage 3: Consolidation and Liberalization (1959–1975)

This stage marked the consolidation of the industrial... Continue reading "Spanish Industrialization: History, Stages, and Modern Policy" »

The Primary Sector in Spain

The primary sector has traditionally been the most important sector of the Spanish economy. However, since the mid-20th century, the development of the industrial and financial sectors has reduced its overall significance.

Major Crops

Cereals

Barley, wheat, and corn are primarily grown in the Spanish communities of Castile and León, Castile-La Mancha, and Aragon.

Vineyards and Olive Groves

Olive cultivation is concentrated in Andalusia, particularly in the provinces of Jaén and Córdoba. Vineyards dominate Castile-La Mancha, Valencia, Catalonia, Andalusia, and La Rioja.

Orchards

Citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, etc.) are primarily grown in the Valencian Community (60% of production). Non-citrus fruits like apples, cherries,... Continue reading "Spain's Primary Sector: Agriculture, Livestock, and EU Integration" »

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was the result of a set of economic and technological changes, which first occurred in Britain in the mid-eighteenth century and which led to a profound transformation of the economy and society. In the mid-eighteenth century, Europe began a process of growth (demographic revolution). The population grew from 140 million in 1750 to 187 million in 1800 and 266 million in 1850. The highest growth was in Britain. The causes of this growth were the increase in food production, improved hygiene, and advancements in medicine. There was, therefore, a decrease in mortality and a slight increase in the birthrate.

Population Increase and its Impact

The population increase led to an increase in food demand.... Continue reading "The Industrial Revolution: Transformation of Economy and Society" »

Primary Sector Activities

The primary sector encompasses activities related to obtaining resources and food production. This includes agriculture, livestock farming, fishing, and forestry.

Agricultural Landscape

An agricultural landscape is a landscape modified to obtain products from nature. Key elements include plots, tillage systems, and settlements.

Understanding Plots

A plot is a division of agricultural land. Plots differ in size (large or small), shape (regular or irregular), and boundaries (open or enclosed).

• Openfield: Open plots without fences, typically small and regular in shape. Common in Central Europe.
• Enclosed fields or Bocage: Relatively large, irregular plots enclosed by walls or fences. Common in the European Atlantic region.

Polyculture

Agriculture and 19th Century Economic Issues

The agricultural sector, while very important in the 19th-century economy, was very poor during this century. The set of confiscations carried out during this century, known collectively as the "liberal land reform," did not produce the desired impact. The lack of materials such as compost or machinery slowed the development of this sector, resulting in the failure of livelihoods to sustain the population and triggering ongoing subsistence crises.

These problems were compounded by other factors hampering economic development. These mainly included:

• Delaying the demographic transition
• Migration
• Poor education
• Lack of energy sources
• The country's peripheral position relative to other industrialized countries

Moreover,... Continue reading "Industry and Economy in 19th Century Spain" »

Spain in the 19th Century: A Period of Transformation

Population Growth and Urbanization

Spain experienced a significant population increase of 60% during the 19th century, particularly in regions like Madrid, Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, the Canary Islands, and the Basque Country. This growth was fueled by several factors, including:

• Decreased mortality rates
• Increased agricultural production
• Improved diet and hygiene
• Medical advancements

Simultaneously, a wave of migrant farmers contributed to increased urbanization. The driving forces behind this migration were:

• Abolition of the manorial system
• Concentration of land ownership
• Harsh living conditions in rural areas
• Technical changes in agriculture
• Improvements in agricultural transportation

The migration... Continue reading "Spain's 19th Century: Population, Agriculture, and Industry" »

Technocracy and Franco's Government (1953-1971)

The period of Technocracy under Franco (1953-1971) marked a significant shift where the regime sought ministers with a technical profile to engage with the international community. This led to the rise of technocrats (1956-1971), who, despite their technical expertise, were primarily chosen for their unwavering loyalty to Franco. Many of these technicians belonged to Opus Dei, a Catholic organization founded by Josemaría Escrivá de Balaguer. Opus Dei aimed to infiltrate and promote its members within government sectors, ensuring access to influential positions and adherence to their ideology. Unlike Freemasonry, which was often seen as anti-religious, Opus Dei was deeply religious, yet similarly... Continue reading "Spain's Transformation: Technocracy, Society, and Economy (1953-1971)" »

Historical Periods: Ancient Regime and Contemporary Age

Understanding historical periods is crucial for grasping societal evolution. Two significant epochs are the Ancient Regime (AR) and the Contemporary Age (RI).

The Ancient Regime (AR)

The Ancient Regime refers to the period until the second half of the eighteenth century. It was characterized by:

• Forms of Energy: Predominantly human and animal power.
• Society: Agrarian, with a hierarchical social structure.
• Political Power: Absolute monarchies.
• Economic Doctrine: Mercantilism.
• Beliefs: Theocentrism.
• Labor and Population: Predominantly rural, with craft and manufacturing (guilds) as key economic activities.
• Challenges: Frequent subsistence crises.

The Contemporary Age (RI)

The Contemporary Age began... Continue reading "The Industrial Revolution: Eras, Innovations, and Societal Impact" »