Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Spanish Conquest and Colonization of America

In the early sixteenth century, voyages to the New World intensified. Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastián Elcano completed the first circumnavigation of the globe. Subsequent expeditions led to significant conquests, notably that of Hernán Cortés in Mexico.

A pivotal conquest of this period was that of Peru, where the vast Inca Empire dominated a large territory. Here, Francisco Pizarro, taking advantage of internal disputes within the Inca leadership, successfully captured the Inca ruler and subjugated their capital, Cuzco. This conquest formed the basis of the Viceroyalty of Peru, which later incorporated lands in Chile, explored by Diego de Almagro and Pedro de Valdivia.

The Spanish conquest... Continue reading "Spanish Colonial Era: Conquest, Exploitation, and Global Impact" »

Santiago

Plant:

• Type of Work: Construction of architecture.
• Title: St. James Cathedral.
• Location: Santiago de Compostela, La Coruña, Spain.
• Author: Unknown.
• Date: 1075 to 1128.
• Style: Romanesque.

Technical Analysis:

• Shape: Romanesque cathedral, typical pilgrimage church model with a Latin cross plan and a head featuring an ambulatory and apses.
• Overview: One of the largest Romanesque buildings, it features a narthex at its feet, housing the Portico de la Gloria. The interior is divided into three naves. The central nave has a barrel vault, while the lower side aisles have cross vaults. Arches connect the aisles to the nave, with external openings illuminating the upper nave.

The vaults rest on compound pillars with adjacent columns, the central nave... Continue reading "Santiago de Compostela Cathedral: Architectural and Historical Overview" »

The Industrial Revolution: Origins in Britain

The first Industrial Revolution, occurring in Britain in the late eighteenth century, marked a profound transformation in the British economy and society. The most immediate changes were in the production process: what, how, and where goods were produced. Work shifted from the production of primary products to manufactured goods and services. The volume of manufactured products grew dramatically through increased technical efficiency.

Productivity growth, in contrast, stemmed from the systematic application of new technological knowledge and experience, leading to increased output. This also favored the creation of large firms in specific geographical areas. Thus, the Industrial Revolution led to... Continue reading "Britain's Industrial Revolution: Economic & Social Transformation" »

England, Home of the Industrial Revolution

This kingdom was small but industrially a head movement, its leadership for a century due to the following conditions:

1. It was the nation most favored by the commercial revolution.
2. It had obtained the most valuable colonies in the Western Hemisphere.
3. A large proportion of profits from overseas trade was available for productive investments.
4. Its military expenditures were lower, and it had excellent administration.
5. Nowhere else in society was trade as developed; it was organized as a legal business and had the best banking system in Europe.

Impact of the Industrial Revolution

• The development of capitalism and the rise of the bourgeoisie in the 19th century.
• The Industrial Revolution brought commercial development

Understanding English Settlers in North America

This document provides information on the arrival of English settlers to North America and the subsequent development of the colonies.

Drivers of English Colonization

English colonization was driven by several key factors:

• Economic Development & Trade

  Economic development fostered a greater amount of capital ready to invest in trade.

• Religious Freedom & Opportunity

  Various religious sects saw America as an opportunity to practice their faith freely.

• Population Growth & New Opportunities

  Population growth in England led to widespread unemployment. The new lands of America offered a fresh opportunity for employment.

Colonial Governance and Society

The organization and forms of government in the... Continue reading "Foundations of Modernity: American Colonies, Revolution, and Liberal Thought" »

The Secondary Sector and Raw Materials

The Secondary Sector involves the transformation of raw materials found in nature into useful products through industrial processes.

Classification of Raw Materials

Raw materials can be classified by origin and renewability:

• Origin: Animal, vegetable, or mineral.
• Renewability: Can be renewable or non-renewable.

Mining Activities

Mining operations are typically location-specific and require specialized technical expertise.

Types of Mining Operations

• Open-Pit Mining: Involves removing ore close to the surface. After extraction, the landscape is often restored.
• Underground Mining: Accesses mineral deposits through underground wells and shafts. This method requires careful maintenance, ventilation systems, and management

Geographical, Historical, and Cultural Framework of English-Speaking Nations

English is spoken as a first language in countries such as the United Kingdom (UK), the Republic of Ireland, the USA, and Canada. In many other nations, English serves as an official language alongside a local tongue (e.g., India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Israel). This document concentrates on two of the closest and most important countries: the UK and the USA.

The United Kingdom (UK)

General Data: The United Kingdom

Its complete name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It is formed by four constituent countries:

• England
• Wales
• Scotland
• Northern Ireland

The UK covers an area of approximately 245,000 km² and has around 60 million inhabitants.

The Union Jack

The European Society of the Old Regime

The Old Regime in Europe was characterized by an aristocratic social structure, legal privileges, and a rigid social division into three estates: the Nobility, the Clergy, and the Third Estate (commoners).

The first two estates held significant privileges, while the vast majority of the population, the Third Estate, engaged in productive activities and struggled for survival. This society was fundamentally based on inherited inequality, favoring a privileged minority.

Social Dynamics in 18th Century Europe

During the 18th century, Europe witnessed the rise of the bourgeoisie, whose tastes and values began to challenge and even dominate aristocratic norms.

The Nobility

• Privileges by Birth: Nobles enjoyed extensive

Understanding Early Human History

Hominid Species

• Homo sapiens sapiens
• Homo neanderthalensis
• Homo erectus
• Australopithecus

The Paleolithic and Neolithic Periods

Paleolithic: The primary period of prehistory, also known as the Old Stone Age. Characterized by nomadic hunter-gatherer societies.

Neolithic: Follows the Paleolithic period. Marked by the beginning of food production (agriculture and livestock) and sedentary settlements.

Concern for the Afterlife

(Information about the reason for concern is missing from the original text.)

Prehistoric Painting

Cantabrian Painting: Naturalistic paintings, such as those found in Altamira.

Mediterranean Painting: Schematic group paintings.

Early Life and Egyptian Concepts

Houses

Simple private structures constructed... Continue reading "Key Aspects of Prehistory and Ancient Egypt" »

Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution profoundly changed the lives of people and social structures. It completed the process of the disappearance of the English peasantry and led to the emergence of large cities that became radical industrial centers.

Transformation of Occupational Structure and New Social Classes

The occupational structure of the population changed significantly. As the agricultural population decreased, the number of persons employed in various branches of industry increased, leading to the rise of two new social groups:

• The Proletariat (Working Class): These individuals worked in factories or workshops in exchange for a salary. The vast majority were former farmers who left the countryside to work