Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Inca Civilization

The origin of the Incas is estimated to have been in the late 12th century when a small tribe settled in the valley of Cuzco. They founded their capital there and later became a vast and powerful empire that kept their traditions, myths, and legends, like other peoples on this continent.

Their economic activities were:

• Agriculture
• Trade
• Metalworking
• Hunting
• Fishing

The Maya Civilization

When the Maya flourished, theirs was an empire that covered all of Mesoamerica. They lived in the jungles of Peten, Guatemala, part of Yucatan, western Honduras, and El Salvador. The Maya flourished between the years 300-900 AD, a time known as the Classic Period. But suddenly, at their peak, they collapsed and disappeared. Two hundred years later,... Continue reading "Inca, Maya, and Aztec Civilizations: History & Culture" »

Primary Sector: Agriculture and Raw Materials

The primary or agricultural sector consists of economic activities related to the transformation of natural resources into unprocessed primary products. These primary products are often used as raw materials in industrial production. The main activities of the primary sector are agriculture, mining, livestock, forestry, apiculture, aquaculture, fishing, and hunting. Industrial processes that are limited to packing, preparation, or purification of natural resources are often considered part of the primary sector as well, especially if the product is difficult to transport long distances under normal conditions. The primary sector is often a significant part of developing countries' economies.

Secondary

Rururbanized Area

A rururbanized area is an indeterminate, transitional zone between the town and the country, featuring characteristics from both. It mixes uses, functions, and agricultural and urban activities.

Aridity

The aridity of a region is defined by the ratio of evapotranspiration, precipitation, and soil absorption. A territory is arid or dry if precipitation does not compensate for water losses due to other factors.

Lease

A lease is an agreement where the landlord gives the exploitation of land to the peasants in return for payment of a certain amount by a specific date. The farmer can grow whatever they want.

Poultry

Within the primary sector, poultry refers to the activity focused on developing farms where birds are bred and exploited.... Continue reading "Key Terms in Geography and Agriculture: Definitions" »

The Emergence of Medieval Cities and the Bourgeoisie

By the eleventh century, the terror of barbarian invasions had largely disappeared. After centuries of a subsistence rural economy, improved agricultural practices began to produce a significant surplus. As is often the case with agricultural surpluses, two key activities developed: trade and specialization (also known as the division of labor). This latter characteristic is fundamental to the settlements we now call cities.

Unlike ancient cities, which were often organized around individuals possessing essential knowledge for survival, medieval urban centers saw merchants and craftsmen gravitate towards the castles of lords, abbeys, and other wealthy strongholds that had accumulated riches... Continue reading "Rise of Medieval Cities: Trade, Artisans, and Guilds" »

Economic Reforms of Carlos III

Development

The reign of Charles III was characterized by attempts to solve economic and social issues that had been largely unaddressed by previous governments. Spanish enlightened thinking focused on a basic concern: the decline of Spain had an economic root. It was believed that revitalizing economic activity could give new vitality to the country. Some of the basics of his thought were:

• The need to develop in Spain the cultivation of the "useful sciences" (mathematics, modern physics, chemistry, mineralogy, etc.) considered as a basis for technical renovation that would support economic revival. This required a complete renovation of the country's education system from primary and vocational education to university

The End of the Roman Empire and the Dawn of the Middle Ages

In the year 476 CE, the **Western Roman Empire** came to an end. Its western territories fragmented into various Germanic kingdoms, while the eastern **Byzantine Empire** continued to thrive.

Key Developments in the Early Middle Ages

• Around the early seventh century, significant changes occurred in the **Arabian Peninsula**. **Muhammad** preached the new religion of **Islam**, which led to the formation of a great empire.
• A century later in Europe, **Charlemagne** established the **Carolingian Empire**, marking a period of renewed stability and cultural growth in Western Europe.
• The **Byzantine** and **Islamic civilizations** were urban, rich, and prosperous. In contrast, Western Europe'

Characteristics of Development Challenges

Agricultural development often remained insufficient, combining traditional agriculture with colonial plantation systems. Plantations depleted soils with cash crops such as coffee, tea, and bananas, which reported little benefit for the country and created dependency on international markets.

Key Issues Faced:

• Insufficient Industry: Industry was often non-existent or primarily served richer countries. Final processing of products frequently occurred outside the underdeveloped nations.
• Unfair Trade: Raw materials and agricultural products were sold at low prices, while imported industrial products had skyrocketing prices.
• Population Problems: Strong population growth, high birth rates, and a high percentage

The Beginnings of Industrialization in Spain

The Catalan Textile Industry

The Catalan textile industry, despite its early growth, faced significant disruptions. Global market dynamics, including increased production from mills in India, and conflicts like the Peninsular War (active in 1808) severely hampered its expansion.

The Process of Mechanization

By 1830, the first steam engines were being established. The rapid mechanization of spinning was driven by several factors, notably the relative scarcity of labor entering the market. This labor shortage pushed up wages at a time when capital was abundant, making mechanization an attractive investment.

Mechanization led to a substantial reduction in production costs and selling prices. This, combined... Continue reading "Spain's Industrial Revolution: Key Sectors and Regional Development" »

Immigrant

A person who changes their habitual residence, moving within the country (internal migration) or to another country (external migration). Historically, in Spain, emigration originated from agricultural Atlantic and peninsular regions. These regions sent people to overseas territories, more developed Western European countries, and urban-industrial areas and resorts within Spain between the mid-19th and the 1970s.

Urban Setting

The concrete space occupied by a city. It depends on the physical environment (topography) and the city's purpose. For example, cities built for defense were often located on hills, while trading cities developed along roads.

Urban Sprawl

The growth of cities between the mid-19th and the early 20th century. This... Continue reading "Key Urban Concepts and Demographics" »

Currently there are about 200 states in the world.

Inhabitants of the Planet

All the inhabitants of the planet live, work, and conduct daily activities in countries. Information about a country includes its location, area, natural characteristics, history, government, symbols, culture, economic activities, and international links.

What is a State?

A state results from a society organized to establish political, legal, and administrative rules governing coexistence. Once established, society is under the state's authority.

The Constitution: A Cornerstone

A central element for state development is the Constitution, the most important legal rule. The constitution organizes the state, establishes the bases and institutions of government, specifies fundamental... Continue reading "Understanding Statehood: Elements, Functions, and Global Context" »