Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Medieval Economic, Social, and Political Crisis

The late Middle Ages experienced a significant economic and social demographic crisis, characterized by an aging population. Reliance on outdated agricultural methods led to a subsistence crisis. The economic downturn stemmed from a deep recession, triggering social and political instability.

Agricultural Decline and Trade Disruption

Crop yields declined due to field abandonment. The plague and the Hundred Years' War severely impacted trade. Recovery began in the late fifteenth century, driven by population growth and increased demand. The burgeoning wool industry stimulated livestock farming, boosting trade with the north, particularly in Aragon and Castile.

Political Instability in Castile and Aragon

A... Continue reading "Medieval Economic, Social, and Political Crisis: A Demographic Study" »

1. The Crown of Castile

1.1 The Castilian Reconquista

The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 marked Christian superiority against Muslims and led to the reconquest of Andalusia. Ferdinand III took Seville, Jaén, and the city of Cordoba. Murcia was conquered by Alfonso X the Wise, who ensured fairness of the proceedings.

1.2 Control of the Strait of Gibraltar in the 13th Century

The Marinids crossed the Strait and attacked Christians. Alfonso XI defeated them at the Battle of Salado, securing Castilian control of the Strait of Gibraltar. This victory initiated expeditions to the Canary Islands.

1.3 Government of Castile

Ferdinand III achieved the union of Castile and León, creating a huge area where the king was considered sovereign by the grace... Continue reading "Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Granada in the Middle Ages" »

The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages

The Iberian Peninsula's Middle Ages began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire, marking the transition from Antiquity. This era commenced with the arrival of the Visigoths.

Key Periods of the Iberian Middle Ages:

• Early Middle Ages (5th–8th Century): Marked by the Visigothic Kingdom and the subsequent invasion period (the beginning of Medieval Muslim rule).
• High Middle Ages (11th–13th Century): A period of significant change. The Christian kingdoms grew stronger, recovering from previous crises, and began the Reconquista, gradually reclaiming territories occupied by Muslims since the 8th century.
• Late Middle Ages (14th–15th Century): Characterized by severe difficulties, including civil wars, the

Migration Rates and Types

• Forced / Voluntary
• Temporary / Permanent
• Internal / External

Current Global Migration Flows

Internal Migration

Internal migration can provoke strong regional imbalances.

• Developing Countries: Movement from rural areas to towns (rural exodus).
• Developed Countries: Movement between cities for study, work, or retirement.

External Migration

Most external migration originates from less developed countries and flows toward the richest countries.

• Flows between Less Developed and Developed Countries.
• Flows among Developed Countries.
• Flows among Less Developed Countries.

Immigration Policies and Illegal Status

Governments establish quotas for immigrants and define immigration law. Individuals who do not meet these criteria are considered... Continue reading "Global Migration Dynamics: Rates, Policies, and Socioeconomic Impacts" »

Spain's Distinctive Geographical Features

Spain has always been characterized by its originality and geographical uniqueness, obtained mainly through three very distinctive features: its peninsular character, its particular topography, and its location and geographical position.

Peninsular Character

Spain is shaped like a peninsula attached to mainland Europe by a particularly narrow isthmus (440 km long) where the Pyrenees are located. These two characteristics of the junction – its narrowness and the geographic barrier posed by the Pyrenees – result in greater isolation for the Spanish territory. This gives it a much stronger peninsular nature than other Mediterranean peninsulas, such as the Italian and Balkan peninsulas.

Location and Position

Unlike... Continue reading "Spain's Unique Geography: Peninsula, Location, and Relief" »

Spain's Wet Regions: Climate and Ecosystems

Defining Rainy Spain: Geography and Precipitation

The **Rainy Spain** encompasses the entire north of the Iberian Peninsula, including Galicia and major mountain systems such as the Pyrenees, Cantabrian Mountains, Central System, Iberian System, Sierra Morena, and the Betic Cordilleras. Average precipitation values exceed 800 mm annually, often surpassing 2000 mm in areas most exposed to moist oceanic flows.

Sources of High Rainfall

This high level of precipitation is primarily due to **Atlantic storms**. However, in the Pyrenees, Mediterranean influence and summer storms also play a significant role.

Wettest Locations in Spain

The wettest places in Spain are found in specific regions:

• Areas of Galicia
• Western

Spanish City Structure: Three Key Areas

Spanish cities exhibit complex urban plans that can be structured into three distinct areas:

1. The Urban Core (Casco Urbano)

a) Site and Situation

This section examines the geographical placement and context of the city's oldest parts.

b) Analysis of the Urban Plan

• Walls (Middle Ages): Historically served defensive, health, or fiscal functions. Their conservation is a key aspect of urban heritage.
• Plan Type: Observe subsequent amendments and transformations. This includes pre-irregular layouts, industrial renewal, internal reforms (such as Madrid's Gran Vía), and renewal policies driven by land profitability.

c) Analysis of the Plot

Often characterized as closed (typical of walled cities and growth stemming... Continue reading "Spanish City Structure: Evolution and Urban Challenges" »

Mesopotamia: Cradle of Civilization

Approximately 6,000 years ago, in the region known as the Fertile Crescent, significant agricultural changes and population growth led to the emergence of complex societies.

• By the fourth millennium BC, farming practices had spread throughout the vast plains of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
• Increased agricultural production and the development of specialized crafts fostered the rise of great cities and new forms of government.
• In these early civilizations, the practice of writing was developed for the first time, marking humanity's entry into recorded history.

Mesopotamia: The Land Between Two Rivers

The first urban civilizations arose in the plains irrigated by the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The inhabitants... Continue reading "Ancient Mesopotamia: Birthplace of Civilization" »

Continental Shelf Definition

The continental shelf is the part of a continent that is submerged in the sea, extending gradually with variable width and depth. It refers to the continental crust, encompassing the submerged surface of a continent but excluding the continental slope that connects it with the oceanic crust.

Economic Indicators: GDP and GNP

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the sum of value added in the production processes of goods and services within a country for a specific period, usually one year.

Gross National Product (GNP)

Gross National Product (GNP) is an economic term reflecting the monetary value of the annual flow of goods and services. It is usually measured by adding the entire cost of each inhabitant,... Continue reading "Key Concepts in Geography, Economics, and Agriculture" »

Understanding Population Pyramids

Population pyramids are graphical representations that show the distribution of various age groups in a population, typically by sex. They illustrate the demographic structure of a country or region, reflecting its past and predicting its future population trends.

1. Expansive Pyramid (Traditional)

• Characteristics: This pyramid has a broad base, indicating a large young population. The bars representing the elderly rapidly narrow towards the apex.
• Societal Context: Characterized by high birth rates and high mortality rates. Many children are born, but many also die, resulting in little overall population growth. This type of pyramid is typical of ancient societies or those in early stages of development.

2. Bell-