Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

19th Century Economic and Social Changes

The nineteenth century saw significant agricultural changes that could be divided into two groups:

• Liberal Land Reform

  The first was the liberal land reform, which stimulated the improvement of agricultural production and marketing in Spain but led to social conflict because it was unable to create a class of smallholders and a middle class: the working peasantry. The primary measures of this reform were the abolition of the manorial regime, the division of land, and the confiscation of assets, leading to agricultural market liberalization. These changes led to the consolidation of private land ownership and placed assets and property systems in Catalonia into the hands of new owners, favoring production

Economic Development and Post-Industrial Society

European society is a post-industrial society. While industry was once the main economic activity on the continent, currently the service sector generates more jobs and wealth. A post-industrial society has evolved from an industry-based economy to one primarily based on services.

Composition of GDP at Market Prices in 2007

The following data illustrates the economic structure of Spain and Catalonia in 2007:

• Agriculture, Fisheries: Spain 2.6%, Catalonia 1.1%
• Industry and Energy: Spain 16.1%, Catalonia 20.0%
• Construction: Spain 11.0%, Catalonia 9.6%
• Services: Spain 59.9%, Catalonia 59.4%
• Net Imports of Products: Spain 10.4%, Catalonia 9.9%

The Economy of Catalonia: A Key EU Region

Catalonia is considered... Continue reading "Spain's Economic Landscape and Geopolitical Boundaries" »

Rail and Steamer Transportation

At its inception, the railroad was primarily used in mines. The first major innovation was a new system of iron rails and flanged wheels that prevented derailment. The most significant development was Stephenson's locomotive (1829), which utilized a steam engine to power the railroad. The first passenger line connected the cities of Manchester and Liverpool (1830).

Subsequently, steamboats replaced sailing vessels. Steamboat operations began in the United States between 1807 and 1847.

The Expansion of Trade and Market Economy

The Industrial Revolution gave way to a market economy in which sales occurred on an increasingly larger scale. Improved transportation systems allowed for a significant increase in internal... Continue reading "Key Innovations and Economic Shifts of the Industrial Age" »

Franco's Spain: Economy and Social Change

In 1939, Spain was devastated. The Franco regime was modeled after Italy (Mussolini) and Germany (Hitler). These models emphasized state intervention and economic self-sufficiency (autorquía). The state controlled prices of agricultural products, compelling farmers to surrender their crops.

In 1941, the National Institute was established to control foreign commerce and industry.

Economic Failure in the 1940s

Agricultural production declined after the war, and the black market dominated the economy. The international isolation of the Franco regime worsened the situation.

The End of Autorquía (1950s)

Economic policy shifted in the 1950s. Prices were deregulated, and food rationing ended in 1952. Starting... Continue reading "Franco's Spain: Economy and Social Transformation" »

Spanish Fishing Activity: Coastal Fleets and Landings

More than two-thirds of the fish landed comes from coastal fleets. While surface volume is high, species from the seabed (fondo) predominate in economic value.

The Atlantic area is richer and more productive than the Mediterranean. Galicia is the most important region, concentrating more than half of the total captured landings. The volume [in the Mediterranean] is far below the Atlantic, highlighting [the importance of the region around] Tramontana.

The most important ports are:

• Vigo
• Las Palmas
• A Coruña
• Tickets (Port)
• Algeciras
• Huelva
• Cádiz (Atlantic)
• Barbate

Domestic and International Fishing Grounds

Spanish fishing grounds have a reduced continental shelf and have been subjected to intense fishing,... Continue reading "Spain's Fishing Industry: Landings, Trade, and Consumption" »

Toward the Contemporary World

At the end of the 18th century, certain movements in the economy overrode attempts at protectionism, which was based in most countries of old Europe. Industry was widely dispersed, operating in workshops, and the small textile industry was concentrated. After 1760, this process became known as the Industrial Revolution. This reform began in England, where the bourgeoisie controlled power, helping to transform agriculture. The Industrial Revolution marked the transition from a traditional agrarian economy to one marked by industry and machine production.

Demographic Revolution: Population Increases

Causes:

• Drop in mortality.
• Eradication of diseases (Black Death).
• Progress of personal and urban hygiene.
• Collection of garbage

Spain's Diverse Agricultural Landscapes

Agricultural landscapes represent the morphology of rural areas, a combination of the natural environment and agricultural activity. The diversity of these combinations explains the variety of existing agricultural landscapes.

The Agricultural Landscape of Wet Spain

This region comprises the north and northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, characterized by rugged terrain with few flat areas and wet oceanic climates throughout the year.

Agrarian Structure

Historically, a large population couldn't be supported by the land, leading to migration and an aging population today. Settlements are dispersed in villages and parishes.

Farmers own small plots (minifundismo) surrounded by hedges, decreasing profitability and... Continue reading "Spain's Agricultural Landscapes: A Regional Analysis" »

Roman Conquest of Hispania

The Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula, known as Hispania, unfolded in three significant phases:

• 218 BC – 197 BC: During the Second Punic War, Rome gained control over all coastal territories of the Iberian Peninsula, stretching from the Pyrenees to the south of modern-day Portugal.
• From 150 BC: Rome extended its dominion inland, subjugating the Celtiberian peoples in the peninsula's interior.
• 29 BC – 19 BC: The final phase saw the subjugation of the Asturian and Cantabrian tribes, completing Rome's conquest of the peninsula.

Roman Provincial Administration

During the Roman era, the territory of Hispania was divided into different provinces to ensure better control and management. Each province, in turn, was subdivided... Continue reading "Roman Hispania: Conquest, Society, and Legacy" »

During the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, while a unified state as a legal entity didn't exist, the monarchs ruled over a collection of territories with shared interests. They were aware of this commonality and, while retaining the traditional titles of their respective kingdoms, sought to create new institutions and homogenize existing ones. Key examples include the Inquisition, the establishment of permanent Ambassadors, and the strengthening of the Army.

Government Institutions

Several key government institutions emerged or were consolidated during this period:

Viceroyalties

Viceroyalties were established as representatives of the monarchs in realms where they were frequently absent. Viceroys held significant political, judicial, and military... Continue reading "The Catholic Monarchs: Unifying Spain Through Institutions" »

Industrial Development: The Process of Change

The cotton industry, iron, and mining were among the first sectors to adopt new technologies. Before analyzing this process, it is essential to revisit the issue of technological change during the Industrial Revolution.

Historians who have studied this period agree that mid-18th century England possessed a "breeding ground" conducive to innovation: freedom and incentives for innovation, skilled craftsmen, and entrepreneurs. However, it must be added that technological change owed much to a whole chain of inventions and the transfer of innovations from one industrial sector to another.

The Cotton Industry: Early Innovations

The first revolutionary changes in technology and economic organization that... Continue reading "Industrial Revolution: Cotton, Iron, and Technological Advancements" »