Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Geography

Islamic Art and Architecture in Al-Andalus

Geographical and Historical Setting

Islam emerged between the 7th and 15th centuries, establishing a culture based on the new religion preached by Muhammad. Before Islam, the warring tribes of the region found unity under this new faith. In 622 CE, Muhammad fled from Mecca to Medina. This event, known as the Hegira, marks the starting point of the Islamic calendar.

The Quran outlines the simple, monotheistic precepts of Islam, influenced by Christianity and Judaism. These precepts include daily prayers facing Mecca, fasting during Ramadan, and a pilgrimage to Mecca.

Islam's unifying power led to the creation of a vast empire stretching from India to the south of France. Al-Andalus became a prominent province... Continue reading "Islamic Art and Architecture in Al-Andalus: A Historical Overview" »

Tourism in Spain

Spain as a Tourist Destination Since the 1950s

In the 20th century, Spain was often perceived as a backward country compared to the rest of Europe, as reflected in the writings of Ortega y Gasset and Victor Hugo. These authors depicted a stereotypical Spain of bullfights and tambourines, contrasting it with a Europe that was growing increasingly powerful and imperialistic. This stereotypical image began to fade with the transformation from the Franco regime to democracy.

Manuel Fraga and the "Spain is Different" Campaign (1960s)

In the 1960s, Manuel Fraga played a key role in boosting tourism, a strategy that continued into the 21st century with the slogan "Spain is Different."

The Rise of Mass Tourism in the Mid-20th Century

Mass... Continue reading "Spain's Tourism Evolution: From Franco to the 21st Century" »

Rural or Agricultural Area: Undeveloped land traditionally used for farming, livestock, and forestry.

EAGGF (European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund): Supports the link between multifunctional agriculture and land, increases agricultural competitiveness in rural areas, encourages diversification of rural activities, helps maintain rural populations, and preserves the environment, landscape, and heritage.

Extensive Husbandry: Relies on the natural environment, with livestock grazing on natural grasslands in wetter regions (northern Spain and mountainous areas) or pastures in drier regions. Associated with native breeds and traditional methods. While still important in certain areas, it is increasingly mixed with intensive farming.

Intensive

16th Century Spain

Spain in the 16th Century: In 1504, the death of Queen Isabella I initiated a series of regencies, revealing the precarious nature of Spanish unity. In 1517, the new King Charles I arrived in Spain. The gentry and nobility supported the royal power and the defeat of Villalar.

Spain was a state with diverse nationalities and a king who was also emperor of a vast empire, including Spain, Germany, Flanders, America, other European possessions, and territories in North Africa. The expenses of ongoing wars bankrupted the state treasury, forcing Charles I to resort to costly loans from European bankers.

These economic difficulties intensified during the reign of Philip II in the latter half of the century. Bankruptcies occurred in... Continue reading "16th Century Spain: Empire, Society, and Cultural Shifts" »

Ancient Iberian Peninsula: Pre-Roman Settlements

In the first millennium BC, the Iberian Peninsula saw diverse settlements.

• Andalusia: A mix of Iberian and Tartessian cultures, influenced by Phoenicians and Greeks.
• Other Regions: Influenced by early Indo-European migrations.

Iberians

Settled on the east coast, their culture showed Phoenician and Greek influences:

• Shared language
• Funeral rites (incineration)
• Similar artistic expressions

Tartessos

Located in western Andalusia and southern Portugal, their economy was based on mining.

Celtiberians

Diverse groups with common aspects:

• Funeral rites
• Iron metallurgy

Northern Peoples

Archaic peoples like Cantabrians and Galaicos inhabited the north (Galicia to the Pyrenees).

Coastal Settlements

Commercial settlements... Continue reading "Ancient Iberian Peninsula: Settlements, Roman Conquest & New Plant Decrees" »

Crisis and Conversion in Spain

In 1973, Spain faced a significant economic crisis triggered by the global oil crisis. This crisis had profound effects on the Spanish economy, reflecting its peripheral position in the global market.

External Factors

• Emergence of semi-peripheral countries with cheaper labor, supported by states, primarily in Southeast Asia, leading to a New International Division of Labor.
• Continued technological innovation, replacing manual labor.
• Increase in oil prices, marking the onset of the crisis, as oil had previously been a cheap alternative to coal.
• Closure of traditional external labor markets, resulting in the expulsion of immigrants.

Internal Factors

• Rising labor costs due to an improved standard of living.
• Stagnation in

19th Century Industrialization in Catalonia

Key Industries

• Textile Industry: Experienced a significant boom in the 19th century.
• Mining Sector: Did not experience the same level of growth as the textile industry.
• Metallurgical Industry: Initiated by Bonaplata and continued by terrestrial and marine engineers.
• Chemical Industry: Specialized in dyes for textile printing and washing.
• Cork Industry: Saw an expansion in the production of spirits and wines.
• Paper Manufacturing: Growth in paper production.

The Labor Movement

Working Conditions

Workers faced extremely difficult conditions:

• Low wages
• Long working hours, up to 15 hours a day
• Precarious working environments with noise, extreme temperatures, and poor ventilation
• Poor nutrition and lack of rest
• Frequent