Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Key Events of the 15th Century

• 1488: Bartolomeu Dias, after a journey around the coast of Africa and enduring storms, reached the southern tip of the continent. King John II of Portugal renamed it the Cape of Good Hope.
• 1492: Christopher Columbus, in command of two caravels and a ship, set sail from Palos de la Frontera, Spain, heading into the Atlantic Ocean. In October, he reached the island of Guanahani, which he named San Salvador.
• 1493: Columbus embarked on his second voyage to America. Pope Alexander VI agreed with the Spanish monarchs to grant them dominion over the newly discovered territories.

Key Events of the 16th Century

• 1501: Amerigo Vespucci, for whom the American continent is named, visited Brazil with a Portuguese fleet.
• 1502:

Population Growth in the 18th and 19th Centuries

Since the mid-18th century, the increase in food production made possible a high population growth. Famines disappeared, and the population, better fed, had greater resistance to diseases and epidemics.

This growth was the result of changes in fertility and mortality. In the 18th century, birth rates rose from 32.5 per thousand at the beginning of the century to 37 per thousand at the end, due to the decline in marriage age and the number of celibate individuals, improving the economic situation.

The reduction in mortality was the result of better nutrition. The mortality rate declined by one-third, from around 32 per thousand in 1700 to just above 20 per thousand in the late 19th century.

Life expectancy... Continue reading "Population Growth and Industrial Development in the 18th and 19th Centuries" »

Industry Development

The Mechanization and the Factory System

Use of machines replacing human or animal labor by machines, hydropower, or coal. Factories were established, and craft production was gradually replaced by the factory system (mass production). The mechanization of the production process began in the textile industry with the flying shuttle, new spinning machines, and looms. Little by little, machines were extended to agriculture, mining, and metallurgy. These machines began to move through the use of hydropower by waterwheels. The steam engine, patented by Watt in 1769, allowed independence to be achieved. These advances led to an increase in productivity and output, enabling lower costs and reduced prices.

The Cotton Industry

Cotton... Continue reading "Industrial Revolution: Mechanization, Economy, and Social Impact" »

The agroexport cycles in Brazil prominently featured sugar and coffee.

Sugar Cycle

The sugar plantations were primarily located in the northeast region of Brazil. They relied on enslaved labor from Africa, with production geared towards the European market. However, soil exhaustion and the increasing difficulty of obtaining labor following the decline of the slave trade hindered the sugar cycle's continuity.

Coffee Cycle

The coffee cycle began in the Rio de Janeiro region, benefiting from the proximity to the port facilitating exports to Europe. Coffee cultivation expanded from Rio de Janeiro to São Paulo, where more favorable soil and climate conditions prevailed. Coffee plantations were organized around large estates. While initially relying... Continue reading "Brazil's Agroexport Cycles: Sugar, Coffee, and Beyond" »

Castile and Aragon: A Dynastic Union

The Modern Age began in Spain with the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. Their marriage in 1469 marked the first step towards the union of the Kingdom of Castile and the states under the Crown of Aragon, effectively uniting them in 1479. This union, however, was primarily dynastic, meaning the territories shared monarchs but retained their own institutions, laws, and monetary systems. Despite this, the union established common goals, including religious and territorial unity and increased monarchical power.

Religious and Territorial Unity

The first step towards territorial unity was the incorporation of the Nasrid kingdom of Granada in 1492, concluding the peninsular... Continue reading "The Rise of the Spanish Monarchy: Castile and Aragon's Dynastic Union" »

Scientific Value of Biodiversity

Each animal carries genetic information crucial for natural selection and mutations accumulated over millions of years of evolution. In essence, each species provides a solution to the challenges of survival. Each species preserves a heritage of the life process and its role within the ecosystem.

Equity Securities in Biodiversity

Every country inherits three types of wealth: material, cultural, and biological. The collection of species from a country, nation, or region is termed biota. This biota should be protected and studied. Ecotourism trips can educate people about endemic species, boost the economy of biodiversity-rich areas, and encourage photographic safaris. However, these activities should be conducted... Continue reading "Biodiversity Protection: In-Situ and Ex-Situ Conservation" »

Spain's Right to Autonomy and Territorial Structure

The State is organized territorially into municipalities, provinces, and autonomous communities that are formed. All these entities enjoy autonomy in the management of their respective interests. The right to autonomy must be based on the principle of solidarity between autonomous communities. The State ensures the realization of this principle of solidarity, guaranteeing the establishment of an economic, appropriate, and fair balance between the various parts of Spanish territory. Spain has 17 autonomous communities and two autonomous cities: Ceuta and Melilla.

Autonomy Statutes: Core Regional Legal Norms

The autonomy statutes are the basic institutional norm of each Autonomous Community. They... Continue reading "Spain's Autonomous Communities: Structure and Powers" »

South American and North American Massifs

Brasilia Massif

The Brasilia Massif is the most extensive plateau in South America, with the largest area of outcrop. Fractures are caused by the Amazon and La Plata rivers, which, on their journey, navigate the uneven terrain with jumps and falls. To the west, it is dominated by high and low plateaus. Biomes include forest and savanna. The population is sparse, mostly concentrated in the coastal strip.

Patagonian Massif

The Patagonian Massif covers the Andean Patagonia, south of the Colorado River. It presents as a large stepped plateau, descending from the Andes to the Atlantic, culminating abruptly in a steep coast. Its external appearance is varied, featuring plateaus, river valleys, ravines, and low,... Continue reading "South American and North American Massifs: Characteristics" »

Global Economy and Globalization

• Key Concepts: Understanding the fundamentals of the global economy.
• Domestic vs. Multinational Enterprise: A multinational enterprise operates in multiple countries, unlike a domestic enterprise.
• Globalization Manifestation: Globalization is evident through increased international trade, distributed production across countries, intensified international financial flows, and numerous trade agreements.
• Factors Driving Globalization: The communications revolution and the Internet have significantly contributed to globalization.
• International Organizations: Should there be international organizations governing the world economy? This is debatable, with potential benefits for poorer countries but concerns about equal