Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Economic Activity

Economic activity is the means by which we obtain the products and services to cover our needs. It involves several phases:

• Production: The generation of goods and services.
• Distribution: The allocation of goods and services.
• Consumption: The acquisition of products to meet needs.

Economic Sectors

• Primary Sector: Agriculture, livestock, fishing, and forestry.
• Secondary Sector: Economic activities that transform raw materials into manufactured products.
• Tertiary Sector: A variety of activities that do not produce tangible goods.
• Quaternary Sector: Research, design, management, and development.

Economic Agents

• Families: Involved in production, providing labor and consuming goods and services.
• Enterprises: Produce goods and services for

Key Ecological and Agricultural Terms

CLISEIRE: Graph representing the timing of vegetation according to altitude.

SUSTAINABILITY: Balance of a species with its environment, the present, and the future.

Kyoto Protocol: International agreement that aims to limit emissions of gases that provoke global warming.

ECOSYSTEM: Unitary or homogeneous natural community consisting of living organisms, abiotic components, and flows of energy and materials.

AGRICULTURAL POPULATION: Population working in agriculture, animal husbandry, or forestry, coupled with those who want to work in the sector, even if they have never worked or are unemployed.

Sharecropping: Contract under which a person supplies land or livestock and other work, delivering the benefits.

LEASE:

Spain's Current Demographic Regime (1975-Present)

The current demographic regime: Since 1975 until now, it features low birth rates and mortality, resulting in slow natural growth.

Declining Birth Rate

a) The birth rate declined from 17,975 to low levels. Two phases are distinguishable: from 1975 to 1998, births sharply declined. In 1981, the index was 2.1 children per woman (the limit to replace the population) and continued decreasing until reaching the minimum in 1998 (1.24).

Causes:

• Economic situation
• Late marriage age
• Female fertile period shortening
• The resulting crisis of 1975 and since 1980, labor insecurity and high purchase price and rental housing, and difficult emancipation from parents.
• Societal changes in mindset and values, decreased

The Agrarian Question

The strengthening and consolidation of absolute monarchies in Europe were based on the economic theory of mercantilism. In opposition, the theory of physiocracy emerged, regarding trade as useful and necessary, but unproductive. For the Physiocrats, the decisive factor was agriculture, considered the productive sector that determined a country's economic development.

In the eighteenth century, the cultivated surface area generally increased, but production techniques remained stagnant, relying on traditional methods. Crops were still the same; the introduction of corn and potatoes in Galicia and northern lands in the late seventeenth century failed to alter the situation. Agrarian life housed over 80% of the population.... Continue reading "Agrarian Economics and the Crisis of the Old Regime in Europe" »

First Taifa Kingdoms

The Taifa were up to 39 small kingdoms that divided the caliphate as a result of fitna or civil war. When the last caliph, Hisham III, was deposed and proclaimed in Córdoba the republic, all Coras of Andalus had not yet become self-proclaimed independent. Each Taifa was initially identified with a family, clan, or dynasty. Thus arose the Taifa of Amiri (descendants of Mansur) in Valencia, that of the Tujibi in Zaragoza, that of the Aftasí in Badajoz, that of the Birzalíes in Carmona, that of the Zirid in Granada, that of the Hammoudi in Algeciras and Málaga, and the Abbadid in Seville. Over the years, the Taifas of Seville, Badajoz, Toledo, and Zaragoza became the peninsular Islamic communities.

Almoravid Empire

The disintegration... Continue reading "The Historical Significance of the Taifa Kingdoms in Al-Andalus" »

Spanish Population Dynamics and Migration

Consequences of External Migration

Demographic consequences were manifested in the decrease in the size of the population and its distribution. The economic consequences were positive on one hand, relieving pressure from strong natural growth and unemployment, and negative on the other, because many savings are not invested in productive assets. Social consequences included uprooting and harsh living and working conditions.

Foreign Emigration Today

Spain has ceased to be a country of emigration for better jobs, better qualifications, and a better lifestyle.

Current Immigration and Its Consequences

Spain has become a receiver of immigrants, both legal and illegal. They come from Europe, Africa, South America,... Continue reading "Spanish Population Trends: Migration and Aging" »

The EU's Industrial Landscape

The EU is one of the most important areas of industrial production, alongside North America and Japan. Industrial activity is the source of its European economic development. The EU's main industrial area runs from the southeast of the UK to northern Italy along the Rhine valley (Germany).

Industrial Production Trends

While old industries are in a time of recession, high-tech industries are undergoing a very dynamic period. These high-tech industries are growing around urban areas and principal nuclei like London, Paris, and around transportation networks and communication links. Industrial production in the EU faces a fundamental problem: a lack of energy resources such as oil and raw materials. The ongoing quest... Continue reading "EU Economy: Industry, Services, Trade & Transport" »

Latin American Industrial Hubs

Mexico: Concentrates light industry in its industrial axes, including Puebla, Mexico City, Guadalajara, and Monterrey. Heavy industry is primarily located in the north of the country.

Brazil: Its industries are concentrated in the triangle formed by São Paulo, Belo Horizonte, and Rio de Janeiro.

Argentina: Industries are established along the Paraná-Río de la Plata front, stretching from the city of Rosario to La Plata. Another significant industrial center is found in Córdoba.

The remaining Latin American countries typically have their industries located in their capital cities.

Notably, Venezuela's oil industry is predominantly situated around Lake Maracaibo.

North American Industrial Powers: The United States

Early

Urban Catchment Area

The scope of an urban catchment area is not permanent but may change depending on economic shifts, means of transportation, and existing communication.

Metropolitan Area

A metropolitan area is an urban region that includes a central city, after which the area is named, and a number of satellite towns that can function as dormitory towns or industrial, commercial, and service centers, organized in a centralized way. It is also known as the urban fabric.

Suburbs

Suburbs refer to land near cities, which, by its nature, is a transition zone between the city proper and adjacent rural areas.

Arrabal

An arrabal is an organic grouping (without prior urban planning) of housing and businesses, usually associated with the lower class. The... Continue reading "Urban Area Definitions: From Catchment to Conurbation" »

The Old Regime: Traditional Rural Society

In the 18th century, the world was less populated than today. The birth rate was very high, as was the mortality rate. This was due to poor sanitation, a lack of hygiene, prevalent diseases, and especially poor and unvaried nutrition. Population growth was low, with birth and death rates nearly balanced. The majority of the population was illiterate and unaware of other cultures. Means of transportation were scarce, expensive, slow, and insecure. This resulted in a significant lack of information and contributed to a socially stable and traditional world.

Agrarian Economy and Early Capitalism

The majority of the population lived in villages or small towns in rural areas, working in agriculture and livestock.... Continue reading "Life and Society in the Old Regime: An Historical Analysis" »