Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Evolution of Spanish External Migration

Decline of Permanent Migration Since 1973

From 1973, permanent migration from Spain to Europe declined significantly. This shift was primarily driven by the economic crisis, which led to rising unemployment in Western European countries. Consequently, many Spanish emigrants returned home. Today, Spanish external migration is predominantly seasonal and temporary.

Consequences of Spanish Migration

External migration has had major demographic, economic, and social consequences for Spain.

Demographic Consequences

• Manifested in the attrition (loss) of the Spanish population and affected its distribution across the territory.

Economic Consequences

The economic consequences were mixed:

• Positive effects: Initially,

1. Types of Services

The types of services are classified into two groups:

• Private Services: These are provided by private companies using funds paid by service applicants. Their main purpose is to obtain an economic benefit.
• Public Services: These are provided by the state using money raised through taxation. Their purpose is to deliver goods to society rather than profit. State funding of basic services for the whole population gives rise to the welfare state.

2. Rail Transport

Rail transport is used to transport passengers and goods over short, medium, and long ranges.

Its advantages include high capacity, security, speed, and low pollution. The disadvantages are the rigidity of the track and the high cost of building lines.

3. Retail

Retail involves... Continue reading "Economic Sectors: Services, Transport, and Retail Analysis" »

Urban Planning: Theory and Practice

The ordering of urban space is handled by urbanism. This discipline has a theoretical dimension (urban theory) and a practical dimension (urban planning), which includes the entire municipal territory—i.e., rural land and urban areas. Its aim is to design new spaces for future growth and transform existing ones according to the social demands of each historical period.

Early Urban Planning Efforts (19th–20th Century)

Between the second half of the nineteenth century and the first third of the twentieth century, the first urban planning efforts took place, coinciding with the time that urban growth exceeded the preindustrial city walls.

Key Planning Adjustments

• Geometric Expansion Plans: Established urban street

Essential Glossary of Demographic Terms

Aging of the Population

A demographic trend characterized by an increase in the proportion of the population aged 65 or over, often defined when this group exceeds 12% of the total population.

Active Population (Labor Force)

A group of people aged 16 or over who provide labor for productive activities, are available for work, and are seeking incorporation into the labor market.

Actual Population

The group of individuals physically present in a territory at a specific time, composed of usual residents and temporary visitors.

Baby Boom

A period of strong growth in birth rates, usually occurring after a period of crisis (e.g., war or economic depression).

Census

The official process of counting individuals in a population... Continue reading "Key Demographic Terms and Population Concepts Defined" »

Migration movements are movements of people from their countries of origin to others that may be permanent or temporary.

• The movement from the place of origin to a destination is called emigration. The person who performs it is an emigrant.
• In the place of destination, the arrival of people from other countries receives the name of immigration. People arriving are called immigrants.

The difference between immigrants and emigrants in a region is net migration. Immigrants, as they provide an effective increase, add to the total population, while emigrants who leave must be subtracted.

Net migration = Immigration - Emigration

• If the number of immigrants is higher than that of emigrants, net migration is positive and the population increases.
• If the

_{^{Natural Resources: Essentials for Human Needs}}

_{^{Humans rely on nature for resources, categorized as:}}

• _{^{Non-renewable: Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas).}}
• _{^{Renewable: Solar, wind, tides.}}
• _{^{Potentially Renewable: Fresh water, arable land, forests, fisheries.}}

_{^{Depletion of resources stems from:}}

1. _{^{Disproportionate population growth and fossil fuel dependence.}}
2. _{^{Excessive use of potentially renewable resources (e.g., overconsumption of water, intensive farming, deforestation).}}

_{^{Countermeasures:}}

• _{^{Global: Renewable energy, organic farming, aquaculture, environmental education, protected ecosystems.}}
• _{^{Individual: Resource efficiency (fuel, water, electricity).}}

_{^{Growth vs. Development}}

_{^{Economic growth doesn't always equate to development. Western economic systems have led to}}

Tourist Areas in Spain

Importance of tourism: Tourism is a major economic driver for Spain, offsetting the balance of payments deficit. The tourism boom began in the mid-1950s, and the number of visitors has grown steadily since. Today, the Spanish economy is heavily reliant on tourism, with revenues equivalent to 30% of total exports. Without tourism, the country's economic growth would be significantly lower.

Factors in Spanish Tourism Development

Spain has always held a certain exotic appeal for educated Europeans, reinforced by its rich Arab culture, castles, and historical sites. Today, the attraction to Spain is mainly due to its climate, with dry summers, high temperatures, and abundant sunny days. The long coastline, scenic beauty, wealth... Continue reading "Spain Tourism: Key Areas, Development & Challenges" »

The Discovery of America: A Turning Point

The arrival of Christopher Columbus in America in 1492 marked one of the most pivotal events in European history, profoundly shaping the political, social, and economic landscape for centuries to come.

Motivations for Exploration

• The increasing difficulties faced by the Byzantine Empire, which eventually fell with the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, forced Western Europeans to seek alternative trade routes to Asia.
• By the late fifteenth century, it was clear that the Portuguese had surpassed the Spaniards in the race for spices and precious metals, thanks to their established dominance along the West African coast.

Columbus's Proposal and Voyage

At this time, Christopher Columbus, who had... Continue reading "The Age of Discovery: Columbus, Tordesillas, and Global Impact" »

Europe's Economic Challenges and Strengths

Europe faces a significant deficit in mineral raw materials. Russia is a major producer of iron and other minerals like aluminum and tin. Consequently, Europe must import substantial amounts of mineral raw materials as its domestic sources are depleted.

Energy Sources in Europe

Europe's energy sector relies heavily on imports, particularly for oil and natural gas, with charcoal being a traditional source. While nuclear and hydroelectric power are highly productive, the use of renewable energies remains limited. In Spain, traditional sources like coal, oil, and natural gas dominate energy consumption, necessitating significant imports.

Industrial Landscape

European industry grapples with several issues,... Continue reading "Europe's Economy: Resources, Industry, and Trade" »

Active Population in Spain

The active population comprises individuals who are able and willing to work. This group is divided into:

• Employed population: People who work and receive compensation.
• Unemployed population: Individuals actively seeking employment.

The inactive population includes those unable to work or who do not receive a salary, such as retirees, individuals under 16, students, homemakers, and the sick.

Primary Sector (5% of Employment)

Agriculture

In Spain, abundant dryland crops (secano) include cereals, vines, and olive trees, predominantly in Castilla-La Mancha, Castilla y León, and Andalusia. Irrigated fruits and vegetables are grown in Andalusia, Valencia, and Murcia.

Livestock

The most abundant livestock is pigs, raised mainly... Continue reading "Understanding Spain's Active Population and Economic Sectors" »