Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

City Structure

Most towns and cities serve as places of residence and have industries. These are located in different parts of the city; this determines the structure.

Residential Areas

Residential areas occupy the most space. Wealthier inhabitants live in the most elegant parts of the city. Poorer people live in less attractive districts in old buildings.

Service Areas

Cities provide a wide range of services. Many of these services are found in the city center. Politics is the main function of all capital cities. The largest port's main function is trade. Destinations of pilgrims have a primary religious function.

Industrial Areas

Industries were started in the cities. Very little industrial activity takes place inside the city. Most industries are... Continue reading "Urban Structures, Growth, and Networks" »

Climate Patterns in Spain

In winter, polar air masses move south, and Atlantic storms significantly impact the Atlantic coast of the peninsula but rarely reach the interior. On the map, a cold front associated with a low-pressure system approaches the Atlantic Peninsula while an anticyclone dominates.

In the Mediterranean, storms also originate when hot air masses come into contact with cold air, which usually happens in spring and especially in fall. Fall storms often cause torrential rains of short duration but high intensity.

Biodiversity in Spain

Spain is a place that has a high biodiversity worldwide, ranking second after tropical forests. This feature is due to different causes:

• a) Spain encompasses three major plant domains: The Atlantic

History

History is the science of humanity's past events in a particular space and time, analyzing its causes to better understand our present.

Sources of Information

Historians study the past because they cannot directly observe it. They seek clues, a collection of traces called primary sources, such as letters. Secondary materials are what other historians have written.

Ages of History

Ancient Age

The Ancient Age begins with the appearance of writing and ends with the fall of the Roman Empire at the hands of the Barbarians in the 5th century AD (476 AD).

Middle Ages

The Middle Ages is the historical period of Western civilization between the 5th and 15th centuries. It conventionally begins in 476 AD with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ends... Continue reading "Human History: From Prehistory to Contemporary Times" »

Challenges in Spanish Fisheries

Fleet Issues and Overexploitation

• Excessive fleet size: The fleet grew significantly until 1977 due to increased demand and facilities provided for renewal (e.g., subsidies). However, higher oil prices, the 1975 crisis, and the 200-mile exclusive economic zone led to an excessive fleet.
• Outdated technology: A large number of small tonnage vessels with outdated technology cannot operate far from the coast, leading to over-exploitation of national fisheries.

Key Environmental Concerns

• Overexploitation of resources.
• Water pollution from agricultural, urban, industrial, and oil discharges.

Regulation and Restructuring of the Spanish Fisheries Sector

• Integration into the EU internal market: Spain's integration led to Common

The Impact of Developmentalism on Urban Growth

From the second half of the 1950s, an era of strong economic growth and rapid industrialization, known as developmentalism, began. This change had a profound impact on cities.

During this period, initial policies promoted massive state housing subsidies, which fostered the growth of numerous neighborhoods in most cities.

Councils initiated modern municipal urban planning through the General Urban Plan. Land was classified into distinct zones:

• Urban land
• Developable land
• Rustic or undeveloped land

It was a time marked by a significant lack of urban services. While a large number of houses were constructed, the parallel development of essential services lagged behind.

Traffic congestion and circulation issues... Continue reading "Urban Evolution: Developmentalism's Impact and Post-Industrial City Shifts" »

Transport is of great importance in Spain, particularly in its more developed cities. It is a system that facilitates the movement of people and goods through interconnected infrastructure networks, including roads, ports, airports, and railways.

Characteristics of the Spanish Transport System

The Spanish transport system exhibits several distinct characteristics:

• Influence of the Natural Environment: The challenging relief necessitates the construction of expensive bridges and tunnels, increasing infrastructure costs.
• Radial Network Centered in Madrid: The network, particularly roads and railways, is predominantly radial with Madrid as the central hub. This radial structure also significantly impacts air transport, as Madrid hosts numerous domestic

Ecological Reserves

An ecological reserve is a natural area, either virgin or semi-virgin, where numerous animal and plant species coexist alongside abiotic factors such as water, soil, and sunlight. The role of an ecological reserve is to protect a natural area in its current state to maintain its unmodified condition. Many ecological reserves exist worldwide, including Shark Island in Sonora, Calakmul in Quintana Roo, and the Centla Swamps biosphere reserve in Tabasco, among others.

National Parks and Nature Reserves

National parks and nature reserves are areas selected by governments or private organizations for special protection against deterioration and environmental degradation. Selection criteria vary, encompassing natural beauty, scientific... Continue reading "Ecological Reserves and National Parks" »

Population Trends in Developed Countries

Population in Developed Countries: Weak Growth

The pace of population growth is very weak, around 0.2%. This weak growth is due to very low birth rates; the average fertility rate is 1.5 children per woman.

Main factors causing this low birth rate:

• The progressive incorporation of women into the labor market and the difficulty of balancing work and childcare.
• The delay in the age of starting a family and having the first child.
• The significant levels of expenditure on child maintenance.
• The change in social norms.

High Life Expectancy and Aging

The average life expectancy exceeds 79 years. Because of this and the low birth rate, developed countries are aging. The most affected countries are Japan and European... Continue reading "Population Trends: Developed vs. Developing Nations" »

The Tracks or Consequences of Imperialism

Colonialism brought significant economic and cultural changes, profoundly impacting the lifestyles of indigenous peoples.

Economic Exploitation

Europeans practiced a plunder economy, exploiting resources at the lowest possible cost. European settlers appropriated land, displacing indigenous populations, some of whom were systematically exterminated. Large companies received concessions to exploit the land through the plantation system, often with forced labor and mistreatment of the native people. Forced labor and the destruction of traditional activities increased the misery of the indigenous population. Railways, highways, ports, and telegraph cables were designed to facilitate exploitation by the metropolis.... Continue reading "Imperialism's Impact and Expansion: 19th and 20th Centuries" »

Self-Determination and the Colonial Order

The concept of self-determination for peoples has evolved significantly, particularly in relation to the colonial and international order.

Origin and Development of Colonization

The origins of modern colonization can be traced back to the 16th and 17th centuries. Colonial powers often justified their acquisition of legal titles over colonized territories by asserting the concept of "uninhabited land." However, many indigenous peoples were already politically organized, even if their political orders were considered "primitive" by the colonizers. The 19th century saw a significant intensification of the colonization of Africa. Other forms of colonization were also established through agreements concluded... Continue reading "Decolonization and Self-Determination: A Historical Perspective" »