Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Industrial Revolution

The terms industrialization and Industrial Revolution refer to the emergence of a fundamental change in the traditional production system, transitioning from manufacturing to large-scale industry. This shift brought about a new way to produce goods in greater quantities, faster, and cheaper, resulting in a profound economic transformation with significant social and cultural implications. It surged in Great Britain in the cotton sector in the late eighteenth century and subsequently spread to Europe and then worldwide.

The key features of the new industrial production are:

• Machinery: The dominance of machines replacing human labor, initially improving spinning and weaving processes. This was initially perceived as a threat

The Beginnings of the Modern Age

The Modern Age began in the mid-fifteenth century. Feudal monarchies were replaced by authoritarian states. The feudal economy, based on the possession of land, gave way to the birth of commercial capitalism. The bourgeoisie gained significance within a class society. The Protestant Reformation broke Christian unity, and the Renaissance was imposed.

Birth of the Authoritarian Monarchy

In Western Europe, feudal monarchies became authoritarian monarchies, where the king reinforced their power over the entire kingdom. This new model of political organization is called the Modern State.

The power of the king still had certain limitations, such as the participation of society through the courts and the need to respect... Continue reading "Modern Age: Authoritarian Monarchies & Economic Shifts" »

Social Impact of Industrialization

The spread of industrialization and the organization of manufacturing production forced workers to concentrate around factories and move to cities. This period marked a profound shift in societal structure.

Internal migration to cities originated from surrounding rural areas. It is estimated that with the onset of industrialization, almost two million British citizens relocated to urban centers. Urbanization grew rapidly; in Britain, around 1750, only two cities had reached 50,000 inhabitants, but by 1851, this number had surged to 29.

This urban growth also significantly impacted the rest of Europe. In the early nineteenth century, only 2% of Europe's population lived in cities. By the early twentieth century,... Continue reading "Industrialization's Societal Impact and Women's Roles" »

The City as the Center of New Industry

During the 19th century, factories and the burgeoning business bourgeoisie found their stage in the industrialized world's cities. These urban centers grew at a dizzying pace. One of the primary drivers of this change was the United Kingdom. London was a clear example of these transformations; in 50 years, its population surged from over 700,000 to more than 1 million, making it the most populous city in the world. This huge increase was due to rural exodus and high birth rates. The same behavior was observed in other European cities, such as Brussels, Milan, and Vienna. Workers, often newly arrived from rural areas, crowded into neighborhoods built near industrial zones. These areas often lacked basic... Continue reading "19th Century Industrialization: Urban Growth & Worker Struggles" »

The Stages of Industrialization in Spain (1959-1974)

The Culmination of the Industrial Process (1959 - 1974)

In 1959, the "Plan of Stabilization of the Spanish Economy" was approved, marking the end of autarky and the beginning of economic liberalization in Spain. From then on, Spain experienced significant economic and industrial growth, largely due to the influx of overseas capital (American, Swiss, etc.) and large multinational corporations. These companies sought to exploit the advantages that Spain offered at the time.

These advantages included abundant and cheap labor, a lack of labor unrest, and permissive legislation. During this period, industry benefited from several favorable factors for its development. Industries were located where... Continue reading "Industrialization in Spain: Stages, Growth, and Crisis (1959-1985)" »

Porfirio Diaz (The Porfiriato)

• Industrial Development: Promoted industrial development through railways, foreign investment, and protectionist policies.
• Economic Growth: Focused on the exploitation of agricultural products and mining, creating an agro-export economy.
• Outward Growth Model: Favored production for export, often neglecting domestic needs.
• Export-Oriented Economy: Relied on the exploitation of natural resources, cheap labor, and foreign capital and technology to increase production.

Francisco Madero

• Mexican Revolution: Initiated the Mexican Revolution, leading to Diaz's resignation.
• Plan de San Luis: Launched the Plan de San Luis to incite revolution.
• Decena Trágica (Ten Tragic Days): Overthrown during the "Decena Trágica," a ten-day

The Birth of a Nation: 1862-1880

In 1862, the Viceroyalty of the United Provinces of La Plata became a unified country, Argentina. Between 1862 and 1880, the presidencies of Bartolomé Mitre, Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, and Nicolás Avellaneda laid the foundation for a modern nation. Their administrations focused on establishing a national government, a single currency, and a national army. While some provinces opposed these changes, fearing the centralization of power in Buenos Aires, the leaders recognized the need for unity. To maintain order, they promoted an increase in the population and improvements in transportation and communication. In the 1870s, General Julio Argentino Roca led a military campaign to subdue the indigenous population

Agricultural Land Holdings

Smallholder

A small farm unit, typically under 5 hectares.

Latifundio

A large landholding, typically above 100 hectares.

Spanish Primary Sector Contributions

Primary sector breakdown (example percentages):

• Cereals: 38%
• Vineyards: 6%
• Olive Groves: 14%
• Horticultural: 8%
• Other: 12%

Note: The original text mentioned "total Spain brings to the U.S.", which was unclear. This section lists sector percentages.

Economic Phases and Sectors

Phases

Production, Distribution, Consumption

Economic Sectors

Primary Sector

Activities involved in obtaining food and raw materials from nature. Examples: agriculture, fishing.

Secondary Sector

Economic activities that transform raw materials extracted from nature into manufactured products. Examples: industry,

The European Union: A Historical Perspective

Post-War Origins and Economic Cooperation

After World War II, several Western European nations sought to establish stability, security, and a robust economic bloc to compete with powers like the United States and Japan. In 1951, France, West Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg signed the treaty establishing the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC). This created a common market for these crucial resources. In 1957, these same countries signed the Treaty of Rome, establishing EURATOM (European Atomic Energy Community) and the EEC (European Economic Community).

The core objectives of these treaties were to foster peace, economic integration, and political union. The EEC aimed to achieve... Continue reading "European Union: A Comprehensive Overview" »

Economic Exploitation of Indigenous Peoples

• Mining and Forced Labor

  Gold and silver deposits in Mexico (Zacatecas) and Peru (Potosí) were rapidly developed. This exploitation relied heavily on the mita system of forced labor, compelling indigenous populations to work in the mines.

• Agriculture, Livestock, and Encomienda

  The creation of large agricultural estates (haciendas) and livestock ranches (estancias) was widespread. Indigenous people worked these lands through the encomienda system, which consisted of distributing indigenous populations among the conquerors, who were tasked with Christianizing them in return for their labor.

• Transatlantic Trade Monopoly

  Trade with the Spanish Americas was a Castilian monopoly, exercised from the port of Seville.