Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

State Intervention and Industrialization

Outside Britain, industrialization was encouraged by state intervention through protectionist economic policies. These policies imposed tariffs and customs duties, which made importation and exportation more difficult. The state carried out activities to promote railways, creating appropriate legislation to encourage mergers.

Transformation in Financing Companies

British industrialization developed thanks to entrepreneurs who invested in their businesses. However, in Europe and the USA, financing methods included:

• Banks investing in companies.
• The company limited by shares.
• Mergers, trusts, and cartels.

Trusts and Cartels

Trusts and cartels are business alliances that prevent competition and reap benefits by... Continue reading "Industrialization Beyond Britain: State, Finance, and Management" »

Energy Use in Trophic Levels

At each level, a portion of the energy is used for growth, some for metabolic processes, and some is lost through respiration as heat and is not reused.

Energy Transfer to Higher Levels

The energy that accumulates in organic matter can pass to the next trophic level. Therefore, the amount of energy that passes from one trophic level to the next diminishes.

Ecosystem Balance: An Ideal State?

For an ecosystem to be balanced:

• Environmental factors must be stable.
• The number of individuals must be relatively constant.
• External factors should not drastically change the ecosystem.

The balance in an ecosystem is an ideal state!

Early vs. Mature Ecosystems

Early Stage:

• Low species diversity and structural complexity.
• Low biomass.
• Low

Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems

On Earth, there are terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Both share the following characteristics:

• Solar energy is essential for the development of life.
• They have the same trophic levels: producers, consumers, and decomposers.
• Matter and energy flow continuously.
• Living creatures adapt to their environment.

Differences Between Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems

• In aquatic environments, nutrients and gases are dissolved in water.
• Temperature changes are minimal in aquatic environments.
• Light is a limiting factor for production in aquatic environments because there is little light below 100 meters in depth.
• Pressure has a greater effect in aquatic environments.

Formation of Terrestrial Ecosystems

Ecological succession refers... Continue reading "Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems: Formation, Biomes, and Biodiversity" »

The Muslim Conquest of Al-Andalus

In 711, a small group of Arab and Berber troops landed near Gibraltar. They crossed the strait, taking advantage of internal confrontations among the Visigoths on the peninsula. This provided the opportunity to easily defeat the Visigothic king Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete. This swift victory encouraged Muslims to continue their expansion, conquering most of the peninsula in only four years, almost without encountering significant resistance. Some pockets of resistance remained Christian, continuously confronting the Muslims in a struggle some authors called the Reconquista. Muslims named the peninsular territory under their domain Al-Andalus, which became a vital contact zone between the Muslim world... Continue reading "The Rise and Fall of Al-Andalus: Muslim Spain's Legacy" »

Domestic and Foreign Trade

1.1 Characteristics and Transformations

Internal trade, involving over three million people, has undergone profound changes in supply and demand, often described as a "commercial revolution."

a) Changes in Demand

Increased purchasing power due to higher family incomes, diversification of clientele, dispersion of consumers, and declining purchase frequency, driven by the pace of modern life, have all impacted demand.

b) Changes in Commerce

The increasing diversification of products to reach more consumers, the spread of new distribution methods, and the utilization of new technologies that improve commercial equipment and facilitate payment have transformed commerce.

1.2 Types of Domestic Trade

1.2.1 Wholesale Trade

Wholesalers... Continue reading "Domestic and Foreign Trade: Characteristics, Types, and Policies" »

The Context of the Romanesque

In the ninth century, a new state, Asturias, began to consolidate, developing a new art form distinct from the Carolingian world to the northeast and the Islamic influence to the south. This accumulation of artistic experiences across space and time often falls under a generic label.

Related Topics:

• Arts
• Art History

Somalia

Somalia's economy relies heavily on livestock such as goats, sheep, and camels. Industries are limited, including food processing, cement factories, and an oil refinery. A brief overview of its history:

• 14th Century: An Islamic state was founded.
• 17th Century: The country fragmented into small tribes.
• 19th Century: British colonization began in 1884.

Millions of Somalis struggle for survival in this... Continue reading "Exploring the History and Geography of the Islamic World" »

Stages of the Spanish Urbanization Process

The current Spanish urban landscape is a complex and heterogeneous space, the product of a long urbanization process that fuses historical legacy with current dynamics.

A) The Pre-Industrial City

Ranging from the origin of cities to the beginning of industrialization in the 19th century, urbanization was low and stable. The Phoenician colonization of the Mediterranean coastline from the 9th and 8th centuries BC and later Romanization led to the founding of many cities, often featuring an orthogonal plane with two main streets.

Medieval Period

A new phase of urbanization emerged in two distinct areas:

• The Muslim City: Characterized by an irregular layout with narrow streets. The old city constituted the Medina,

Growth of Peripheral Neighborhoods

New neighborhoods emerging on the outskirts of cities often lack essential infrastructure like sanitation, electricity, and water. These rapidly developing areas, sometimes illegally established, are known as barrios de autoconstrucción. Neighborhood associations formed to demand improvements, gradually transforming these settlements into towns and, eventually, contributing to the expansion of metropolitan areas.

The Rise of the Automobile

The rapid urban growth necessitated faster transportation, leading to the car's prominence. This unplanned expansion continued until the end of the 1970s.

The Post-Industrial City

Post-industrial Spain is marked by the dominance of Madrid and Barcelona, two extensive metropolitan... Continue reading "Evolution of Spanish Cities: From Periphery to Global Hubs" »

Challenges Facing Spain's Traditional Fishing Industry

The loss of traditional fishing grounds has caused a crisis, leading to retraining programs for different methods, like boat-based removal fishing, due to catch limitations. Consequently, many Spanish fishermen and their ships have been forced to operate under other flags to access fishing opportunities in those grounds.

Economic and Competitive Pressures

• Fuel Prices: A key factor is the increase in fuel prices, which has made fishing activity much less profitable.
• Competition from Third Countries: Competition from developing countries has intensified, with their share of world production growing from 45% to 70% today. They are fishing in many grounds traditionally exploited by the Spanish

Factory (Fabrica)

Fabrica refers to unit production methods typical of the Industrial Revolution as opposed to the workshop and the manufacture. It is characterized by concentration and mechanization to produce goods.

Openfield

Openfield literally refers to open-field plots from different farms that are not separated by hedges.

Commonfield

Commonfield is the name given in England to communal land.

Fallow

Fallow is a culture method based on the rest of the soil during one or more years to recover the substances consumed by the previous crop and increase its fertility.

Great Britain

Great Britain is the kingdom founded by the union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland. After Irish independence in 1922, the official name is the "United Kingdom of Great... Continue reading "Key Concepts of the British Industrial Revolution" »