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Topic 2: The 18th Century Revolutions

Agricultural Revolution

The Agricultural Revolution saw remarkable increases in food production due to key innovations:

• Changes in farming systems
• Introduction of new machinery
• New property structures

The spread of crop rotation (e.g., the Norfolk system), combining cereal and fodder cultivation, eliminated the need for fallow periods.

Increased Production & Demographic Growth

Increased food production led to lower food prices in the 18th century, contributing to significant demographic growth. Birth rates rose, mortality rates decreased, and life expectancy increased.

Industrial Revolution

The concentration of workers in factories led to the decline of many handmade crafts, with factory production replacing... Continue reading "18th Century Agricultural & Industrial Revolutions" »

The Evolution of Spanish Cities

Pre-Industrial, Industrial, and Post-Industrial Stages

The evolution of Spanish cities can be divided into three stages: pre-industrial, industrial, and post-industrial.

The Pre-Industrial City

The pre-industrial city includes the development of cities from antiquity until the installation of the industrialization process.

Ancient Times

The first cities of the Iberian Peninsula arose in the era of Phoenician, Punic, and Greek settlements (7th century BC). These people founded merchant factories. The Roman age saw increased urbanization in the peninsula. Their legacy materialized in the emergence of new Roman colonies, some built on pre-existing populations, such as Tarraco (Tarragona), Carthago Nova (Cartagena), and... Continue reading "Evolution of Spanish Cities: Pre-Industrial to Post-Industrial" »

1. Population of the EU: Slow Growth and Aging

Almost 500 million people live in the countries that make up the EU. The population grows very little. The low birth rate, an average fertility rate of 1.5 children per woman, means that natural population growth is slow. The population over 65 years represents 16% of the total and has increased for two reasons: the adult population is very large, and life expectancy is high. The percentage of the population under 15 years is decreasing. The European population is aging.

High Percentage of Immigrants

The EU increasingly welcomes immigrants. In 2004, the population increased. Germany, France, and the United Kingdom were the 21 main host countries for immigrants. Later, Italy and Spain became priority... Continue reading "EU and Spain Population: Demographics, Migration, and Culture" »

Population of the European Union

Slow Growth and Aging

• The population is experiencing slow growth due to a low birth rate, with death rates exceeding birth rates by over 10%.
• Natural population growth is slow, with an average fertility rate of 1.5 children per woman.

High Percentage of Immigrants

• Germany, France, and traditionally the United Kingdom have been major recipients of immigrants.
• At the beginning of the 21st century, Spain and Italy became priority destination countries.
• Each community has inclusion programs with two goals: language teaching and integration into the core values of the host country.

Uneven Population Density

• The average population density is 114 inhabitants/km².
• Over 1,200 municipalities have a population density of less than

Europe at the Dawn of the 18th Century: The Ancien Régime

At the beginning of the 18th century, Europe lived under the 'Ancien Régime' (Old Regime). This was a system based on:

• A seigneurial agricultural economy.
• Absolute monarchy.
• An estates-based society.

Seigneurial Agriculture: The Economic Foundation

From an economic point of view, agriculture was the most important activity. Key characteristics included:

• Subsistence Farming: Primarily aimed at self-sufficiency, often using a triennial rotation system with fallow land. Autoconsumption was the norm, with few surpluses.
• Subsistence Crises: The economy was vulnerable to crises. Poor harvests led to food shortages, price increases, hunger, and misery, which often generated popular riots.
• Land Ownership:

The Meseta Central

The Meseta Central is a high plain located at an altitude of about 600-800 meters. It was formed primarily by the erosion of the Hesperian Massif, which emerged during the Hercynian orogeny. In the Tertiary Era, it was deformed, and the plateau was largely reshaped by the Alpine orogeny. Three main units can be distinguished:

A) The Old Paleozoic Basement

Today, it only occupies the western part of the peninsula. The erosion of Tertiary materials that covered the basement has exposed primary peneplains. These are elevations due to erosion or gently undulating surfaces. The peneplains feature inselbergs (very hard rocks). In areas where the peneplain contacts the sedimentary basins of the plateau, rivers create deep gorges.

B)

Al-Andalus: Muslim Military Occupation of the Iberian Peninsula

Internal crises and the expansionist movement of the Visigoths and Islam (634) led to rivalries for throne succession. When Agila (Visigoth king) died, the Duke of Betica led a revolt and occupied the throne, resulting in a civil war. The Visigoths then asked for help from Muslims in North Africa. Because of internal disputes, Governor Musa could consider conquering the Peninsula and Ceuta. Musa (711) started an expedition with 7,000 men to the peninsula, followed by another 5,000. The showdown was at Guadalete, where the Visigoths lost Roderic. They conquered the peninsula shortly and easily, showing tolerance to Christians and Jews who defended their lost land rights. Those who... Continue reading "Al-Andalus: History, Society, and Culture in Medieval Spain" »

Types of Industrial Zones

Metropolitan Crowns

Several types of industrial zones exist. Metropolitan crowns in outlying urban areas have declined. In the process of replanting, they are recipients of Public Employment Offices (PEO). Some cases involve traditional industries relocated from metropolitan core areas, seeking to reduce costs and do business. These industries are located in industrial estates. In other cases, the crowns attract innovative companies that are installed in technological parks.

Peri-Urban Fringes

These are in the transition zone between the urban and industrial rural areas. They are small, thinly capitalized, and in need of unskilled and flexible labor. They engage in traditional production jobs, outsourcing, or processing... Continue reading "Industrial Zones: Types, Causes, and Implications" »

Primary Sector Activities

The primary sector encompasses activities performed to take advantage of natural resources, including agriculture, livestock, fisheries, and mining.

Agricultural Area

• Biotechnology
• Machinery
• Individual or collective smallholdings, large estates

Direct: The owner's work. Indirect: Landholding changes, cash crops, or leases.

Structure

• Small, medium, and large farms
• Regular or irregular bocage
• Open fields or fenced fields

Agriculture

• Rainfed Crops: Utilizing rainwater
• Monoculture: Cultivating one or a few crops
• Polyculture: Growing multiple crops and orchards

Examples include Mediterranean crops such as olives, vines, wheat (rainfed), beets, and cotton (irrigation and monoculture).

Maximum yield is achieved when capital investment is... Continue reading "Understanding the Primary and Secondary Sectors of Industry" »

The Second Industrial Revolution

Business Concentrations: Cartels, Trusts, and Holding Companies

A cartel is an agreement among manufacturers of certain products to reduce or eliminate competition. This agreement often involves fixing prices or allocating clientele. A trust is a fusion resulting from various administrations or activities devoted to the same or different phases of a production process. A holding company is a financial company that invests in and controls various administrations. These giant concentrations developed in the U.S. and Germany. Some industrial powers, like the United States, enacted anti-trust laws that forbade actions hindering competition or creating monopolies.

Economic Protectionism

Economic protectionism consisted... Continue reading "Second Industrial Revolution: Technological Advancements & Global Impact" »