Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Consequences of Colonization in Africa

In just 20 years, starting from the 1884 Berlin Conference, Africa was completely colonized. Due to the continent's perceived impenetrability, colonies were demarcated along artificial meridian lines and parallels. This arbitrary division often grouped disparate ethnic, religious, and cultural populations within single states, leading to significant consequences. While pre-colonial Africa was characterized by tribal affiliations rather than unified nations, resulting in frequent inter-tribal conflicts, colonial boundaries exacerbated these tensions. Furthermore, colonial powers established systems of economic exploitation, prioritizing resource extraction over infrastructure development for local populations.... Continue reading "Colonization of Africa and Asia: Impacts and Transformations" »

Characteristics of Human Settlements

Human settlements can be classified into two groups:

• Urban Settlements: This group includes towns, cities, metropolises, and megacities. Their functions are:
  • To be political and administrative centers
  • To be secondary and tertiary economic centers
  • To be key transportation facilities and communication centers
  • To be centers of social interaction
• Rural Settlements: This group includes concentrated settlements and dispersed settlements. Their functions are linked to:
  • Food production
  • Extraction of raw materials
  • Secondary economic activities

Cities are a human phenomenon; they do not arise spontaneously but originate in a historical process.

Urban Features

The urban environment is defined as a set of special conditions formed... Continue reading "Human Settlements: Urban and Rural Characteristics" »

Industrial Location: Factors and Global Trends

Classic Industrial Location Factors

• Proximity to raw materials and energy sources
• Proximity to the consumer market
• Abundant, cheap, and well-qualified labor
• Efficient transport system
• Industrial policy
• Entrepreneurial will
• Historical tradition
• Political and social circumstances

Historical Trend: Industrial Concentration (1855-1975)

During the period 1855-1975, industries exhibited a strong tendency towards concentration in large urban-industrial agglomerations. This resulted from several factors:

• Crowding and availability of facilities for supply and transport
• Ease of obtaining labor
• Proximity to markets
• Access to numerous services and capital equipment
• Easy access to information and innovation

This trend led to... Continue reading "Industrial Location Dynamics: Factors and Global Trends" »

Agrarian Transformations in 18th Century Britain

The changes in British agriculture during the eighteenth century were so significant that they are often referred to as an Agricultural Revolution, occurring alongside the Industrial Revolution.

As large-scale industry developed, agricultural activity also advanced, characterized by:

• High productivity
• An advanced degree of mechanization
• Ownership concentrated among entrepreneurs

This agricultural revolution involved both technical changes and reforms in land structure and distribution.

Technical and Structural Changes

Key technical advancements included:

• The elimination of the fallow period through the adoption of crop rotation systems, preventing fields from lying unused.
• Selection of improved crop varieties

Agriculture in Spain

Spain has a modern agriculture and market characterized by the following features:

• Prevalence of intensive farming, helped by the expansion of irrigation and poor use of fallow.
• Use of new technologies, fertilizers and pesticides, selection of seeds, and new farming systems (sanded, greenhouses, etc.).
• Specialization of crops by region. For example, the Almeria coastline has specialized in greenhouse vegetable crops.
• Existence of more prepared personnel and rejuvenation of agricultural workers by immigrants.
• Crops for the farm and food industry.

Challenges Facing Spanish Agriculture

However, current Spanish agriculture is facing many problems and challenges:

• The abandonment of farming in many areas of inland Spain.
• The use in various

Item 15 of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 is the fundamental law governing the Spanish system of government. It is characterized by:

• National Sovereignty
• The division of powers: executive, legislative, and judicial.
• Freedom and equality before the law.
• The guarantee and protection of the rights and freedoms of citizens.

The Political Organization of the State

The state is organized around three powers:

• Legislature: Responsible for developing and passing legislation. Courts are generally divided into the Congress of Deputies and the Senate.
• Executive: Corresponds to the Government, which comprises the President and ministers. Its mission is to implement laws and direct domestic and foreign policy.
• Judiciary: Exercised by courts, and its function is

The Importance of the Service Sector

The service sector plays a crucial role in modern economies, exhibiting distinct characteristics in developed and underdeveloped countries:

• Diversity: In developed countries, services are widespread and diverse, while in underdeveloped countries, more basic services predominate.
• Access: The majority of the population in developed countries has access to a wide range of services. In contrast, access to services is limited for a significant portion of the population in underdeveloped countries.
• Contribution to GDP: In developed countries, a significant portion of GDP comes from business and public services. In underdeveloped countries, personal services contribute more significantly.
• Employment: Developed countries

Understanding the Primary Economic Sector

The primary sector of the economy encompasses all activities related to the extraction and exploitation of natural resources from the Earth's surface, subsurface, and water bodies. Nature provides abundant resources—plants, animals, and minerals—that humans utilize directly through their transformation to satisfy fundamental needs such as clothing, food, and shelter.

Key components of the primary sector include agriculture, livestock farming, forestry, fishing, and mining. These activities are crucial from the standpoint of economic development and global food security.

Key Primary Sector Activities

Agriculture

Agriculture involves the production of a wide variety of plant species. These crops serve... Continue reading "Primary Economic Sector: Resource Extraction & Production" »

Dry Regions of Spain

The dry regions of Spain cover the largest territory of the Iberian Peninsula. This area occupies the two sub-plateaus and the basins of the Guadalquivir and Ebro rivers, in addition to Extremadura, Valencia, southern Catalonia, and the Balearic Islands. In these areas, rainfall ranges between 400 and 800 mm annually. However, other areas are classified as semi-arid, where rainfall is between 200 and 400 mm.

Rainfall Patterns

Semi-arid areas include Almeria, Murcia, parts of the Ebro and Duero depressions, Granada, and Alicante, as well as part of the Canary Islands.

Causes of Aridity

In the Canary Islands, the shortage of rainfall is due to their latitude and the influence of the Azores High. In the south of the peninsula,... Continue reading "Spain's Dry Regions & Mediterranean Forests" »

Key Population Concepts

Census of Population

The process of collecting data on the number of individuals within a given population and their main characteristics (demographic, socioeconomic, socio-cultural, etc.). Censuses are typically conducted periodically.

Real Growth

The change in a population's size over a specific period, resulting from the balance between natural growth and net migration. It can be represented as: CR = CV + SM = (TN - TM) + (I - E), where CR is Real Growth, CV is Natural (Vegetative) Growth, SM is Net Migration, TN is Birth Rate, TM is Death Rate, I is Immigration, and E is Emigration.

Vegetative Growth (Natural Growth)

Measures the population change during a period due solely to the balance between births and deaths. Formula:... Continue reading "Key Population and Demography Definitions" »