Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Geographical Discoveries and Their Impact

The Geographical Discoveries: In the Middle Ages, European trade flowed through the Silk Road (Central Asia-Mediterranean-Constantinople). Europeans had to find new sea routes to access certain luxury goods.

Progress of Navigation

Portolan charts were maps that detailed maritime ports and coasts. The astrolabe and the compass guided ships with more accuracy and allowed for better orientation.

The Discoverers

During the 16th century, the Portuguese had a monopoly on the trade of silk and spices to Europe. Vasco Nuñez de Balboa discovered a new, very peaceful and quiet ocean, and he confirmed that America was a new continent. Fernando de Magallanes named the Strait of Magellan, linking the Atlantic and Pacific... Continue reading "Geographical Discoveries & Impact on Civilizations" »

Globalizing Cities and Population Shifts

The Transformation of Urban Economies

The late twentieth century witnessed a significant transformation in the urban economy, leading to the emergence of global cities. These cities, such as New York and Tokyo, are privileged sites due to their focus on international exchanges and production centers.

Urban Transformations

Global cities adapt to new global functions through the construction of new infrastructures, including transport and telecommunications networks. This often leads to strong price rises. Megacities are simple territorial agglomerations of human beings, characterized by social and regional differences.

• Privileged Areas: Inhabited by people with higher incomes.
• Marginalized Areas: Often found

Climate Change and Global Warming

13) Climate Change/Global Warming: Yes, it is the result of the increasing greenhouse effect, caused by rising emissions of greenhouse gases. These, in turn, result from the combustion of hydrocarbons. This leads to thawing that could raise sea levels, causing the disappearance of islands and coastal areas.

Energy Sources and Environmental Concerns

International Agreements

14) Kyoto Protocol: A commitment where signatory countries pledge to reduce or not increase their CO₂ emissions.

Energy Types

16) Traditional Sources: Wood, Coal, and later Oil and Natural Gas.

17) Nuclear Energy: Based on enriched uranium used as fuel. It generates hazardous radioactive waste that is difficult to treat. Radioactive waste can alter... Continue reading "Climate Impacts, Energy Choices, and Sustainable Futures" »

US Military Interventions in Middle East

The Gulf War marked a turning point in US foreign policy. In 1990, Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait, a US ally. The US, backed by the UN Security Council, led an international coalition to liberate Kuwait. Iraq was ordered to pay compensation, destroy its chemical and nuclear weapons, and faced an oil embargo. The September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, led by Al-Qaeda's Osama bin Laden, triggered a strong US military response. The US attacked Afghanistan's Taliban regime, which sheltered Al-Qaeda training camps. In March 2003, the US invaded Iraq, citing the existence of nuclear weapons and ties to terrorist groups, despite lacking UN support. Saddam Hussein was deposed and executed, but the US intervention... Continue reading "US Middle East Policy, Women's Rights, and Globalization" »

Industrial Revolution: Economic and Social Transformations

Overview

The Industrial Revolution was a period of significant economic and social changes driven by technological advancements that began in Britain in the mid-18th century. This transformation profoundly impacted the economy and society.

Demographic Revolution

Causes

• Increased farm production
• Progress in medicine and health

Consequences

• Decreased birth mortality
• Increased population growth

Features in Spain

• Population growth from 11.5 million in 1797 to 18.6 million in 1900 (60% increase)

Agricultural Revolution

Causes

• Privatization of soil
• New cultivation techniques

Characteristics

• New private property system
• New crops
• Norfolk four-course crop rotation
• Mechanization of tasks

Consequences

• Increased demand
• Rising

Industrial and Energy Terminology

Industrial Activities and Processes

• Industrial Activity: An activity that transforms commodities into manufactured products.
• Extractive Activities: Activities responsible for obtaining natural resources from the Earth.
• Agribusiness: A factory that converts agricultural raw materials into semi-processed or processed products.
• Industry: An activity that transforms raw materials into semi-processed or processed products using an energy source.
• Agrifood Industry: An industry transforming products from agriculture, livestock, and fisheries.
• Equipment Industry: Industries engaged in producing machinery and apparatus necessary for the production of goods and services.
• Industry Tip: High-tech sectors that are skilled and capital-

Russia's Economy and Natural Resources

Russia is a leading global power in energy and possesses the largest reserves of iron (40% worldwide) and manganese (30% of the world's total). The dispersed location of its mines, oil, and natural gas deposits contributes to its decentralized industrial structure. Russian agriculture is constrained by climatic conditions. The Russian North is predominantly covered by forests, and the northern parts of Siberia are characterized by permafrost. Cereal crops are primarily cultivated in the central and southwestern regions with intensive agriculture.

Middle East: Oil Production and State Control

The countries in the Near and Middle East Asia (Iraq, Iran, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Doha, Abu Dhabi, United Arab... Continue reading "Economic Geography of Russia, Asia, Latin America & Africa" »

Spain's Tertiary Sector in 2007: Regional Analysis

Choropleth thematic maps, where color intensity represents quantity, illustrate the state of Spain's tertiary sector in 2007. This analysis focuses on the sector's contribution to the working population and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) across different autonomous communities (regions).

National Overview and Regional Disparities

In Spain, the average contribution of the tertiary sector to national wealth was high at 66.8% in 2007, typical for a developed country. However, significant differences existed in the degree of economic tertiarization among regions.

Regional Groupings by Tertiary Sector Contribution

Based on the map legend, Spain's autonomous communities can be categorized into four groups... Continue reading "Spain's Tertiary Sector: 2007 Regional GDP Contributions" »

Consequences of Tourism

Demographic Impacts

Tourism attracts people seeking employment in the sector, which can halt outward migration from certain developing areas. Conversely, it can lead to excessive population congestion during peak times, potentially saturating local services.

Economic Impacts

Tourism can generate significant benefits:

• Creates employment opportunities.
• Provides high yields.
• Fosters the development of other economic activities.

However, there are potential drawbacks:

• Jobs created may be precarious and temporary.
• Revenue often flows back to the origin areas of tourist businesses rather than staying local.
• Goods consumed by tourists are frequently imported, potentially undermining local production.
• Prices for goods and services can increase,