Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Spain's Atlantic Region

Physical Characteristics

• Climate: Wet, cloudy, with frequent fog and much precipitation.
• Mountains and mountain ranges near the Cantabrian Sea.

Vegetation

• Ground vegetation covered with forests.
• Deciduous trees (beech).
• Many pastures.
• Heathland shrubs such as bracken and gorse.

Social Characteristics

• Cattle ranching: Semi-stabled cattle.
• Intensive agriculture: Smallholdings (minifundios), potatoes, and corn.

Demographics

• Diverse: Industrial cities with large populations, and villages with small populations.

Habitat

• Dispersed, with cottages or groups isolated in small villages.

Activities

• Fishing: 60% of Spain's total, including cod and whiting.
• Industry: Concentrated in the Basque Country and Cantabria.

Inland Spain

Physical Characteristics

• Climate:

Cooperatives as Engines of Development

Cooperatives have a major presence in the agricultural sector, the financial sector, and the associated sector. They allow cooperative members to enjoy and manage productive or commercial infrastructure that they could not access individually, giving them the ability to compete under better conditions.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Cooperatives

Advantages

• The corporate structure is more participatory and democratic.
• There are several specific grants and subsidies for cooperatives.
• Fiscally, the qualification of a Protected Cooperative implies a rate of 20% in corporation tax.
• There are no limitations on the capital needed for its constitution.

Disadvantages

• Requires a high degree of understanding between the

Differences Between the Crowns of Castile and Aragon

The Crown of Castile

Government and Royal Power

The Crown of Castile was a unified kingdom where the monarch held significant power. Castilian kings wielded greater authority than other rulers on the Iberian Peninsula, possessing the legal right to declare war and administer justice. While the Castilian Cortes (parliament) could not legislate, they held considerable influence, particularly in their ability to approve or deny royal requests for taxes.

Economic Foundations

The Castilian economy was primarily based on agriculture and livestock farming. The growth of Merino sheep was particularly central, with high-quality Merino wool becoming a primary export. Transhumant flocks moved across an extensive... Continue reading "Crowns of Castile and Aragon: Divergent Paths and the Age of Discovery" »

Surrealism in America: Key Generations

The development of Surrealism in America can be categorized into distinct generations:

• Generation Surrealism (1927): Influenced by the precursor of psychoanalysis, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud.
• Generation Neorealist (1942): Also known as New Realism, drawing inspiration from nineteenth-century realism. Their model is Marxism, exemplified by Carlos Droguett (e.g., The Murdered Worker Insurance).
• Generation Unrealistic (1957): Marked the consolidation of Surrealism, reinforcing the characteristics of the first generation.
• Generation Novísima (1972): A primary example of this generation is Mario Vargas Llosa.

Spanish Monarchy: Habsburgs and Bourbons

Key Reigns and Historical Periods

• Charles V (Carlos V):

Roman Conquest of the Iberian Peninsula

• The Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula and the process of Romanization.

The conquest of the Iberian Peninsula was developed in stages between 218 BC, the date of commencement of the intervention of the Romans in the peninsula in the context of struggles between Rome and Carthage (Second Punic War), and the year 19 BC when they captured the territories in the north of Spain. Roman rule lasted until the collapse of the empire in the late 5th century AD.

Romanization: Economy

Exploitation of resources such as metals (primarily gold and silver), slaves (townspeople revolted against the Romans) used in mines, estates, and agricultural resources. Agriculture was based on the exploitation of the Mediterranean... Continue reading "Roman Conquest and Romanization of Iberian Peninsula" »

The French Revolution: Causes and Impact

I. Roots of the Revolution

The causes of the revolution are rooted in a deep economic and social crisis. Poor harvests caused the rising price of food and widespread popular discontent.

Socio-Political Tensions

• Bourgeoisie Dissatisfaction: The bourgeoisie were dissatisfied with their political marginalization, as only the privileged classes could hold public office.
• Enlightenment Ideas: Influenced by Enlightenment ideas, the bourgeoisie sought to put an end to absolutism and the whole system of the Old Regime.

The Financial Crisis and the Estates-General

The solution to the financial crisis required a tax reform that would compel the aristocracy to pay taxes. However, the absolute monarch, Louis XVI, feared... Continue reading "The French Revolution: Causes, Phases, and Liberal Economic Foundations" »

Extremadura's 18th Century Economy

Agriculture and Livestock Dominance

The economy of Extremadura in the 18th century was primarily agricultural, with a significant predominance of the livestock sector. This long-standing situation, dating back to antiquity, often proved detrimental to farming. Several factors contributed to this:

• Despite abundant fertile fields, land ownership was concentrated in the hands of the landed nobility.
• The powerful privileges granted to the Honourable Council of the Mesta meant vast tracts of pasture land could not be cultivated.
• These factors also led to a decrease in cultivated land, worsening the plight of day laborers and land tenants.

During the 18th century, Extremadura remained an isolated territory, poorly documented... Continue reading "Extremadura in the 18th Century: Economy, Society, and Population" »

C Diputación Special

There are certain territories that have characteristics at the provincial level:

1. With the CA one province: In the CCAA, there is no deputation; the CA performs the functions. This applies to Madrid, Murcia, La Rioja, and Cantabria.
2. The Basque Country and Navarra: In the case of Navarra, as a territory with jurisdictions (independence), there is a Board Member of Navarre. The Basque Country, as jurisdictions, has changed the names. Each province has one President (Deputy Government of Vizcaya, and Alava Guipúzcoa) and one province in parliament (Joint Government of Vizcaya, and Alava Guipúzcoa).
3. The Balearic and Canary Islands:

• A. The Balearic Islands: It is one province, but each island has a different treatment. Each island

The Formation of the Christian Kingdoms

The Pyrenean counties: Charlemagne, aiming to protect his empire from the Muslims, established a frontier zone known as the Marca Hispanica. This region was divided into counties, governed by counts who were answerable to the emperor. At the beginning of the 9th century, Navarrese and Aragonese counts from Jaca declared their independence. The Hispano-Visigoths established the County of Aragon around 817, and the Kingdom of Pamplona was also founded. Borrell II refused to renew the oath of allegiance to the Frankish king, leading to the effective independence of the Catalan counties.

Consolidation of the Kingdoms

Ferdinand I united the kingdoms of León and Castile. However, upon his death in 1065, they... Continue reading "Medieval Spain: Christian Kingdoms' Rise and Fall (9th-15th Centuries)" »

When the Muslims entered the Iberian Peninsula, it was fully occupied with the exception of the territories situated to the north in the Cantabrian Mountains. These remained under Christian rule. The Reconquista acquired great momentum and culminated in 1492 with the surrender of the last Moorish king, Boabdil of Granada, at the hands of the Catholic Monarchs.

Factors Contributing to the Reconquista

• Population Growth: Occurred in the Christian nuclei, largely due to the arrival of Mozarabs from the territories occupied by Muslims.
• New Military Tactics: Development and adoption of effective military strategies.
• Crusading Mentality: Christian monarchs considered themselves heirs to the Visigothic kings, with the right and duty to recover their former