Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Challenges to Spain's 19th Century Industrialization

The Spanish economy of the 19th century was characterized by conditions that did not allow Spain to fully industrialize. Several key factors contributed to this delay.

Geographical and Resource Factors

To begin, we must highlight the geographical factors. While Spain's overall geographical location is optimal for foreign trade, its internal relief presented significant challenges. The abrupt interior terrain did not favor domestic commerce, limiting the development of transportation routes. However, it should be noted that its subsoil wealth, particularly in lead and mercury, placed Spain among the leading producers in Europe.

Population and Domestic Demand

Also noteworthy was the slow modernization... Continue reading "Spain's Delayed Industrial Revolution in the 19th Century" »

Tertiary Sector in Spain

The tertiary sector, or service sector, is a vital part of the Spanish economy, encompassing trade, transport, tourism, and other services.

Trade in Spain

Domestic Trade

Domestic trade is widespread in Spain, particularly in urban areas and those with higher income levels. It is dominated by small shops and traditional trading activities. In recent years, it has undergone a major restructuring:

• Modernization driven by new consumption patterns and technology.
• Expansion of new forms of trade.
• Crisis of traditional small businesses struggling to compete with large commercial enterprises.

Foreign Trade

Foreign trade has experienced spectacular growth. The Spanish trade balance remains in deficit, meaning imports exceed exports,... Continue reading "Spain's Service Sector: Trade, Transport, Tourism" »

Key Factors of the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions

1. Agriculture

• Three-year rotation systems: Cereals, legumes, and forages.
• New crops: Most importantly, potatoes.
• Mechanization: Led many to refer to an "agricultural revolution." Harvesters and tractors replaced animals, increasing productivity.
• Use of fertilizers: Fertilizers supplemented special nutrients.
• Livestock: One of the biggest changes. The previous clash between agriculture and livestock disappeared with the Industrial Revolution; they became complementary. New products emerged: milk, meat, cheese, etc.

2. Industry

Industry incorporated technological innovations that increased productivity. Spillovers occurred; the textile sector influenced metallurgy and steel (feedback).

• Capital:

The Reign of the Catholic Monarchs

Domestic Policy of the Catholic Monarchs

Dynastic Union: Castile and Aragon

The Catholic Monarchs achieved the territorial unification of the Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of Portugal. Through the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, the two kingdoms were united under the same monarchs. However, each kingdom maintained its own distinct institutions, laws, currencies, and languages.

Administrative Reforms and Royal Power

The monarchs implemented several reforms to centralize power and improve governance:

• Royal Council (Consejo Real): Strengthened as the primary advisory and governmental body, diminishing the political role of the Cortes (parliamentary assemblies).
• Permanent Army: Establishment

Advances in Commercial Agriculture

From the second half of the nineteenth century, commercial agriculture gradually became prominent on the Mediterranean coast, focusing on both domestic and export markets. The cultivation of vines, citrus fruits, rice, and sugar cane was widespread, alongside other products like ECS fruits, olive oil, and esparto grass. Notably, vineyards, a traditional crop, experienced significant expansion due to increased demand for wine derivatives. Between 1850 and 1875, Spain tripled its wine exports to Europe, largely because of the devastating phylloxera plague that ruined French vineyards around 1863. Consequently, Spain became the world's leading wine producer between 1870 and 1880. However, traditional cereal cultivation... Continue reading "Transformation of Spanish Agriculture and Industry in the 19th Century" »

The Industrial Revolution

A Transformation of Society and Technology

The Industrial Revolution marked a significant turning point in history, characterized by the replacement of manual tools with machines, the substitution of human and animal power with new energy sources, and the shift from domestic production to the factory system. This revolution had an enormous impact on the structure of society and was accompanied by remarkable advances in technology. Originating in England in the second half of the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution signified the end of the transition from feudalism to capitalism, marked by the primitive accumulation of capital and the supremacy of the market in production. It also completed the bourgeois revolution... Continue reading "Industrial Revolution: History and Impact on Society" »

The Tertiary Sector: An Overview

The tertiary sector is the economic sector that provides services to the population. It is the predominant economic sector today, characterized by its grand diversity.

Services Included

This sector encompasses a wide range of services, including:

• Health
• Education
• Tourism
• Expansion of transport

The tertiary sector has reached its maximum development due to the information society, technical and scientific advancements, the globalization of the economy, and the growth of international exchanges. This is sometimes referred to as the revolution of the tertiary or quaternary sector.

Sector 3.0: Science and Technology

This sector includes activities related to technique and science. The demand for scientific and technological... Continue reading "Understanding the Tertiary Sector: Services, Growth, and Impact" »

17th and 18th Century Europe: Society, Politics, and Culture

Population Dynamics and Early Modern Crises

Europe's population faced stagnation in the 17th century due to significant challenges. Regions like Selge, Pisidia, experienced the devastating impact of the Bubonic Plague. Coupled with large-scale epidemics, famines, and widespread deaths, these crises severely impacted demographic growth. Despite periods of good harvests, the overall trend was one of vulnerability and decline.

Social Structure: Privileged and Non-Privileged

European society was rigidly stratified, characterized by a stark division between the Privileged and Non-Privileged estates. This unequal structure defined social and economic status:

• The Privileged Estates:
  • Nobility:

Medieval Reforestation and Social Organization

The restocking and repopulation during the Middle Ages can be divided into four distinct stages:

• The High Middle Ages (8th-10th Century): This period was characterized by a very slow occupation of the territory of Galicia, the north of the Duero, and the high Ebro. The kings decreed that farmers would own the land they could occupy and exploit. This form of land acquisition was called presura in the Kingdom of León and aprisio in the Catalan regions. The new owners were grouped into villages and elected a pastor and a military head. Additionally, some villages depended on monasteries.
• First Part of the Middle Ages (11th-12th Century): During this stage, the lands lying between the Duero and the Tagus

A: Albania to Algeria

• Albania - Tirana
• Germany - Berlin
• Andorra - Andorra la Vella
• Austria - Vienna
• Afghanistan - Kabul
• Saudi Arabia - Riyadh
• Armenia - Yerevan
• Azerbaijan - Baku
• Argentina - Buenos Aires
• Angola - Luanda
• Algeria - Algiers

B: Belgium to Brazil

• Belgium - Brussels
• Belarus - Minsk
• Bosnia and Herzegovina - Sarajevo
• Bulgaria - Sofia
• Bangladesh - Dhaka
• Bahamas - Nassau
• Belize - Belmopan
• Bolivia - Sucre
• Brazil - Brasília

C: Vatican City to Côte d'Ivoire

• Vatican City - Vatican City
• Croatia - Zagreb
• Czechia - Prague
• Cyprus - Nicosia
• Cambodia - Phnom Penh
• North Korea - Pyongyang
• South Korea - Seoul
• China - Beijing
• Canada - Ottawa
• Costa Rica - San José
• Colombia - Bogotá
• Chile - Santiago
• Republic of the Congo - Brazzaville
• Democratic Republic of the Congo - Kinshasa
• Côte