Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Cultural Change 13.3: Shifting Mindsets

Education and the Press

From the late 19th to early 20th centuries, Spain experienced significant economic, social, political, demographic, and cultural advancements. Between 1874 and 1914, Spain's per capita income grew by 60%, with notable industrial and railway expansion.

Politically, the recognition of universal suffrage expanded voting rights, consolidating individual freedoms. Socially, the rise of the middle class and urban growth were evident. Madrid's population surpassed 500,000, and Bilbao's grew from 30,000 to 85,000. Citizens increasingly mobilized through labor unions, employers' associations, feminist groups, farmers' leagues, chambers of retailers, sports clubs, and cultural organizations.... Continue reading "Spain's Transformation: 1874-1930" »

Industrial Revolution & Spanish Economic Union

Context: Global Industrial Transformation

• The Second Industrial Revolution brought significant advancements, including the widespread use of electricity, new chemical industries, and the development of artificial cement.

Spain: Economic and Monetary Unification

• This period saw the creation of the peseta in 1868, establishing an economic and monetary union.
• Inland customs disappeared, facilitating trade.
• Extensive railway construction modernized transport infrastructure.
• The feudal system was abolished, transforming land ownership and labor.
• A revision of the juridico-mercantile framework occurred, including the Act on Public Limited Companies (SA) of 1856.
• Despite these changes, Spain maintained commercial

Climate and Landscapes: An Introduction

This document explores various climate zones and their associated landscapes.

1. Climate Seasons

• Winter: Areas influenced by polar air masses.
• Summer: Areas affected by hot air masses.
• Intermediate Seasons: Spring and Autumn.

2. Temperate Zone Landscapes

These include:

• Oceanic or Atlantic
• Mediterranean
• Continental

3. Cold Weather Landscapes

Found in polar regions and high mountains. Shrubs and higher vegetation grow in these areas. Polar regions are sparsely populated.

4. Landscape Types

Oceanic Landscape

Characteristic of the west coast of Europe. The oceanic climate features mild winter and summer temperatures. Rainfall is abundant throughout the year. Forests and meadows thrive in this environment.

Mediterranean Landscape

Found... Continue reading "Temperate, Cold, and Mediterranean Landscapes: Climate and Vegetation" »

The Old Regime: Economy and Society

Agriculture and Economic Life

During the Old Regime, agriculture was the most important source of wealth. Only a small portion of land could be considered private property; the rest was linked to the Church, the nobility, or the Crown. Land held by nobles was known as seigneurial land, while other parts were divided into small plots for peasants.

As agriculture was primarily for subsistence, there was no specialization, and trade was scarce. Crops were grown in open fields, utilizing fallow periods for cereal production. Livestock production was insufficient, and harvests often failed, leading to periodic crises of subsistence.

Demographics and Urban Life

Demographics during this period were characterized by little... Continue reading "Old Regime Society: Economy, Estates, and Absolute Monarchy" »

Sustainability and Water Use

If we use water faster than it can be replenished, its use is not sustainable. We need to store and distribute it efficiently, which can be expensive.

Large-Scale Water Management Projects

Large-scale projects to increase water supply often involve big dams. They are usually complex, multi-purpose projects. Up to the 1980s, the rate of building increased until most of the best sites in North America and Europe had been developed, in the so-called 'Blue Revolution'.

Currently, dams supply:

• 40% of the world's irrigated water.
• 20% of the world's electricity.
• 15% of all blue water.

Dams may bring benefits in terms of increased water supply, but they can have negative impacts too. Their construction can disrupt fragile aquatic... Continue reading "Water Management: Sustainability, Pollution, and Solutions" »

Castile: Medieval Political Structure

Castile's political structure centered on three institutions. The monarchy was authoritarian, with farmers dependent on it. Castile and Leon unified administration, focusing on establishing a general law, the Code of the Party, and centralizing power. Alfonso X strengthened the royal case against former privileges. The monarchy could legislate without the Cortes, which arose from the bourgeoisie's desire to participate in government. The Cortes, an assembly of nobles, clergy, and bourgeoisie, had a consultative role and approved subsidies. Municipalities enjoyed autonomy and their own jurisdiction, subject to open meetings. The figure of the mayor, the royal representative in municipalities, emerged.

Aragon:

Europe's Energy Landscape and Industrial Dynamics

Energy Sources in Europe

• Coal: Now scarce, significantly reducing its participation in energy production and consumption in Europe.
• Oil: Its availability is reduced, and most countries spend considerable sums on importing it.
• Natural Gas: Deposits abound on a smaller scale, and its consumption has experienced remarkable growth thanks to advances in technical production and the creation of a European supply network.
• Nuclear Energy: Concentrated in very few countries; the construction of new power plants is being reconsidered because of its lower impact on global warming.
• Hydroelectricity: Stagnant due to the scarcity of suitable locations for new facilities and criticism received from environmental

The market economy facilitates the purchase and redemption of goods. In a capitalist system, supply refers to the quantity of products and services available for consumption, while demand represents the quantity of goods and services consumers intend to buy, influenced by factors like family income.

Market Challenges and Government Intervention

Imperfect Competition

From an economic perspective, competition is often imperfect. This occurs when a single company or a duopoly controls the supply, quality, and price of a product.

Social Considerations

From a social viewpoint, the system may not invest in social needs that do not yield profits.

Labor Conditions and Employment

Labor Law

Labor law regulates the rights and duties of workers, establishing minimum... Continue reading "Understanding Market Economies and Agricultural Landscapes" »

Causes of the Industrial Revolution

Economic Factors

• Changes in land tenure and large estates
• Need to supply peripheral markets
• Rise of capitalism

Social Factors

• Population growth
• Unemployment

Political Factors

• Political consolidation
• Rise of the bourgeoisie

Population Growth and Its Impact

Since the eighteenth century, plague epidemics were disappearing, and the development of agriculture allowed for increased food production. This led to a catastrophic decline in mortality rates (due to starvation, wars, and epidemics). European mortality, including infant mortality, decreased. While birth rates fell slowly, they remained high, leading to considerable vegetative growth. Population growth was more pronounced in cities, leading to significant migrations,... Continue reading "Industrial Revolution: Origins, Progress, and Global Impact" »

Economic Activity

Economic activity is the means by which we obtain the products and services to cover our needs. It involves several phases:

• Production: The generation of goods and services.
• Distribution: The allocation of goods and services.
• Consumption: The acquisition of products to meet needs.

Economic Sectors

• Primary Sector: Agriculture, livestock, fishing, and forestry.
• Secondary Sector: Economic activities that transform raw materials into manufactured products.
• Tertiary Sector: A variety of activities that do not produce tangible goods.
• Quaternary Sector: Research, design, management, and development.

Economic Agents

• Families: Involved in production, providing labor and consuming goods and services.
• Enterprises: Produce goods and services for