Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Economic Reforms of Carlos III

Development

The reign of Charles III was characterized by attempts to solve economic and social issues that had been largely unaddressed by previous governments. Spanish enlightened thinking focused on a basic concern: the decline of Spain had an economic root. It was believed that revitalizing economic activity could give new vitality to the country. Some of the basics of his thought were:

• The need to develop in Spain the cultivation of the "useful sciences" (mathematics, modern physics, chemistry, mineralogy, etc.) considered as a basis for technical renovation that would support economic revival. This required a complete renovation of the country's education system from primary and vocational education to university

Characteristics of Development Challenges

Agricultural development often remained insufficient, combining traditional agriculture with colonial plantation systems. Plantations depleted soils with cash crops such as coffee, tea, and bananas, which reported little benefit for the country and created dependency on international markets.

Key Issues Faced:

• Insufficient Industry: Industry was often non-existent or primarily served richer countries. Final processing of products frequently occurred outside the underdeveloped nations.
• Unfair Trade: Raw materials and agricultural products were sold at low prices, while imported industrial products had skyrocketing prices.
• Population Problems: Strong population growth, high birth rates, and a high percentage

Immigrant

A person who changes their habitual residence, moving within the country (internal migration) or to another country (external migration). Historically, in Spain, emigration originated from agricultural Atlantic and peninsular regions. These regions sent people to overseas territories, more developed Western European countries, and urban-industrial areas and resorts within Spain between the mid-19th and the 1970s.

Urban Setting

The concrete space occupied by a city. It depends on the physical environment (topography) and the city's purpose. For example, cities built for defense were often located on hills, while trading cities developed along roads.

Urban Sprawl

The growth of cities between the mid-19th and the early 20th century. This... Continue reading "Key Urban Concepts and Demographics" »

Currently there are about 200 states in the world.

Inhabitants of the Planet

All the inhabitants of the planet live, work, and conduct daily activities in countries. Information about a country includes its location, area, natural characteristics, history, government, symbols, culture, economic activities, and international links.

What is a State?

A state results from a society organized to establish political, legal, and administrative rules governing coexistence. Once established, society is under the state's authority.

The Constitution: A Cornerstone

A central element for state development is the Constitution, the most important legal rule. The constitution organizes the state, establishes the bases and institutions of government, specifies fundamental... Continue reading "Understanding Statehood: Elements, Functions, and Global Context" »

Anarchism

Anarchism is an ideology based on the premise that all state authority is coercive and therefore illegal. It reached its intellectual peak in the late nineteenth century through the works of Proudhon and Kropotkin. Proudhon famously stated that "private property is theft," and since the main purpose of government is the protection of property, no form of government is justified.

Biomes

A biome is a large geographic area characterized by groups of plants and animals adapted to a particular environment. Climate is the primary factor determining the dominant vegetation type, although soil type and topography also play important roles. Each biome consists of different ecosystems whose communities have adapted to small differences in climate... Continue reading "Political and Environmental Concepts" »

Understanding Industry: Key Concepts and Factors

Labor Rights and Conditions

In developed countries, labor laws protect workers. These laws often include provisions for:

• Fair working hours and breaks
• The right to form and join trade unions
• The right to strike
• Paid holidays
• Protection against unemployment and illness

In contrast, underdeveloped countries often face challenges such as:

• Long working hours with minimal breaks
• Inadequate facilities
• Low wages
• Limited or no worker rights

Capital in Industry

Capital is essential for industrial activity and includes:

• Raw materials
• Energy sources
• Machinery and industrial plants
• Financial resources to purchase materials and pay workers

Company Mergers and Concentration

Company mergers aim to increase benefits. Two main types... Continue reading "Understanding Industry: Capital, Mergers, and Location Factors" »

Travel Schedule

The circuit is the basis for the production of guided tours, routes, and tour packages. A tourist circuit is composed of four elements:

• A specific space
• A natural or cultural heritage
• One subject, when the circuit is a specialized type
• Innovation capacity

Space or Territory

The tourist circuit can be considered local or regional depending on the territory covered. It is limited when covering a local city or town and regional when comprising more than one location. (City tour, guided tour of a neighborhood: local circuit; package in northern Argentina: regional circuit).

Factors to take into account to define the size of the circuit are several:

• The type of product it is designed for: The circuit is not a product itself but is the basis

European State Disparities

Inequalities exist among European states based on various factors:

• Size: The largest state by area is Russia.
• Situation: Almost all European states are maritime (have coastlines).
• Shape: Europe has states with fragmented territories or lack of territorial continuity.
• Population: The most populous state mentioned is Russia, with 143 million inhabitants.
• Wealth: Germany is considered the economic powerhouse of Europe, but Luxembourg is the country with the highest purchasing power per capita.

Key EU Treaties: Rome and Maastricht

What did the Rome and Maastricht treaties establish?

Treaty of Rome: This treaty established the European Economic Community (EEC). These treaties created a common market, an area where products could... Continue reading "European Union & Spain: Structures, Treaties, Disparities" »

Landscape Architecture: From Ancient Roots to Modern Design

Landscape architecture finds its roots in ancient Persia and Mesopotamia, but the term itself is rather modern. The landscape, viewed as an ecosystem, emphasizes the diversity of its flora and fauna. When linked to ethnology, landscape architecture is interested in its relationship with the lifestyles of different cultures that have inhabited a place. Society evolves along with the landscape, and the landscape is inherently associated with nature.

Types of Landscapes

• Urban Landscape: Characterized by human-made structures and infrastructure within a city or town.
• Natural or Rural Landscape: Dominated by natural features such as mountains, forests, and bodies of water.

Martha Schwartz: A

Industrial Activity

The set of processes and activities that aim to transform raw materials into finished products in bulk.

Company

An organization or institution engaged in economic and commercial activities.

Nuclear Fission

The currently used process that comes from the fission, or separation, of heavy atoms, such as uranium.

Renewable Energy Source

Sources that are inexhaustible because they generate energy without disappearing, allowing for indefinite use, such as water or heat from the sun.

Hydropower

The production of energy through the power of water. Reservoir water is channeled through a pipeline and used to move turbines connected to a generator, converting mechanical power into electricity.

Technology Industry or High-Tech Industry

These industries... Continue reading "Industrial Activity: Key Concepts and Definitions" »