Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Geography

Transportation and Communication in Spain

Functions of Transport

The growing number of exchanges requires rapid, safe, and affordable transport systems.

1. Offsets: Allows for the separation of population between jobs and residence, for work and leisure purposes.
2. Firm Level: Facilitates the movement of workers, ensures the arrival of raw materials, and the distribution of finished goods. A well-connected producer country with good communication fosters the concentration of economic activities. Developed countries have dense and varied transport and communication networks, well-structured, and normally without isolated areas, although these networks are denser in urban and industrialized areas than in rural areas. Poor countries have incomplete and

Real Population Growth in Spain

The actual growth of the population can be calculated using the formula: Real Growth = Natural Growth (Births - Deaths) + Net Migration (Immigrants - Emigrants). Since the 19th century, Spain's population has increased threefold, but this growth has not been steady. It can be divided into distinct periods:

• Mid-19th to Early 20th Centuries

  The increase was low due to low natural growth, characteristic of the old demographic regime (high birth and mortality rates), and significant overseas emigration.

• 1900-1975 Period

  This period saw high growth, driven by the high natural growth typical of the demographic transition. The increase would have been even greater if not partially constrained by continued mortality from

The Survival of the Roman Cultural Legacy in Hispanic Culture

For more than six centuries (from the 5th century BC to the 5th century AD), the Iberian Peninsula belonged to the Roman Empire. Hispania was one of the most Romanized provinces and, therefore, has an abundant cultural heritage.

The principal legacy is Latin, the basis of most current languages (Castilian, Catalan, and Galician). Hispania also gave the Empire philosophers like Seneca and writers such as Quintilian and Martial.

In second and third place, we find Roman law (the concept of the state) and Christianity. Although Christianity spread in later dates, it achieved the rank of official religion under Emperor Constantine (313 AD). Indeed, the Church retained Roman law, administrative... Continue reading "Roman Legacy in Hispania and the Discovery of America" »

Cuatro Ciénegas

The 18th century is known as the Age of Enlightenment, a triumph of light against the darkness of the Middle Ages. This century is a great period in which there will be great contributions to freedom and the first liberal revolutions.

Changes in Agriculture

• Norfolk System: A system of crop rotation that increased land productivity compared to the fallow system.
• Fallow: Agricultural technique of leaving the land to rest for a while with the aim of improving its conditions for the next crop.
• Wetlands were drained in order to increase arable land.
• The Romans abandoned the traditional wooden plow and replaced it with the iron one. Also, they used oxen, horses, and donkeys.
• The fallow system was replaced by the Norfolk system.
• Communal land transitioned

Desert Encroachment and Desertification

Human activities significantly accelerate the appearance of desert conditions.

Main Factors Contributing to Desertification:

• Overgrazing: Excessive grazing by livestock removes vegetation cover, leading to soil erosion.
• Chemical Degradation: Pollution from industrial and agricultural chemicals degrades soil quality.
• Agricultural Activities: Unsustainable farming practices, such as monoculture and excessive tillage, deplete soil nutrients.
• Logging and Forest Fires: Deforestation removes trees that anchor soil and regulate water cycles.
• Soil Compaction: Heavy machinery and livestock traffic compact the soil, reducing its ability to absorb water.
• Overexploitation of Water: Excessive extraction of groundwater lowers

Mendizábal's Confiscation in Spain

Background: The Madoz Seizure

The Madoz seizure involved the sale of various properties, particularly municipal lands, to members of the Church. In Asturias, long-term leased lands called foros existed, often owned by the Church, with tenants paying rent across generations. A similar system was present in Galicia. The Madoz seizure declared both personal and common lands for sale, including those leased by municipalities to fund services. This practice stemmed from lands granted to municipalities by kings during the Reconquista. Major military orders were located in Andalusia, Extremadura, Valencia, and Murcia. Payment for seized lands involved a 10% upfront payment and the remainder over fourteen years,... Continue reading "Mendizábal's Confiscation: Church and State in 19th-Century Spain" »

Key Demographic Concepts and Trends

Baby Boom

A baby boom refers to an accelerated increase in population growth within a short period. This term can sometimes be associated with subsequent economic challenges.

Age Groups and Their Economic Roles

• 0 to 14 years: This group comprises babies, children, and adolescents up to 14 years old. They are generally considered the school population and are not part of the paid workforce.
• 15 to 64 years: This age bracket is often referred to as the economically active population.
• 65 years and over: This group includes older adults or the elderly, who are largely retired from the workforce.

Global Population Aging

The aging of the world's population is a consequence of the demographic transition. A decline in mortality... Continue reading "Demographic Trends: Birth Rates, Mortality, and Population Growth" »

The Phenomenon of Colonization

Various native peoples of the Eastern Mediterranean came to the Balearic Islands, the East Coast, and Andalusia in the Iberian Peninsula. Their distinctive feature was the commercial activity they had developed in the Mediterranean area. Beyond settling in Hispanic lands, they are called settlers. The main reason for their arrival was economic: copper, tin, gold, and silver. Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians came to Hispanic lands.

Early Settlers

The Morro de Mezquitilla deposit in Malaga dates from the 9th century BC. The founding of Gades, future Cadiz, is dated between 800 and 775 BC. New foundations are usually located on the Mediterranean coast of Andalusia, such as Sexi. They were interested in the mines... Continue reading "Ancient Mediterranean Colonization of the Iberian Peninsula" »