Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Rise of Cities and the Bourgeoisie

The emergence of the bourgeoisie and the growth of cities profoundly transformed feudal society. Noble kings and ecclesiastical authorities granted personal freedom to city inhabitants, along with rights such as holding markets. This allowed for the formation of a new, non-privileged social group.

Defining the Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie comprised artisanal people dedicated to work and trade, who depended on no feudal lord.

City Governance and Civic Elite

Cities formed assemblies of all their neighbors to organize their governments. They elected judges who protected finances, maintained order, and administered justice, all directed by a mayor. Ultimately, city government often fell into the hands of the richest... Continue reading "Medieval Urban Transformation: Bourgeoisie, Crises, and Revival" »

Life and Labor in Early 20th Century Barcelona

Precarious Living Conditions

At the dawn of the 20th century, working-class families in Barcelona endured conditions of near-subsistence. They often lived in cramped, small houses, frequently shared with other families. Barcelona itself was undergoing rapid growth, leading to a process of social disintegration, particularly affecting its most vulnerable populations.

The city's social fabric was distinctly stratified:

• Immigrants: Many resided in the older, more established areas.
• Bourgeoisie: Concentrated in the affluent Eixample district.
• Artisans: Settled in villages recently annexed by Barcelona.
• Working Class: Predominantly located in the industrial zones.

Harsh Working Environments

Working conditions... Continue reading "Barcelona's Labor History: From Precariousness to the 8-Hour Day" »

The French Revolution was the most important political change that occurred in Europe in the late eighteenth century. It was not only important for France, but served as a precedent for other countries, where similar social conflicts broke out against an anachronistic and oppressive regime, such as the monarchy. This revolution represented the triumph of a poor people, oppressed and tired of injustice, over the privileges of the feudal nobility and the absolutist state.

Absolute Monarchy and Economic Collapse

During the reign of Louis XIV (1643–1715), France was under the sway of an absolute monarchy. The power of the king and the nobility was the basis of this regime, but in reality, the state was in a precarious economic situation. This situation... Continue reading "Roots of the French Revolution: Economic Crisis and Social Conflict" »

America's Roaring Twenties: Uneven Prosperity

Who Benefited from the 1920s Economic Boom?

While the 1920s are often remembered as a period of widespread prosperity, the economic boom did not benefit all Americans equally. Certain groups and industries experienced significant gains:

• The Rich and Middle Classes: These groups saw substantial increases in wealth and living standards. By 1929, a staggering one-third of all income was earned by just 5% of the workforce, highlighting the concentration of wealth.
• New Consumer Industries: Sectors like automobiles and electrical goods (e.g., refrigerators, washing machines, radios, vacuum cleaners) thrived. There was massive demand for these new, exciting products. The adoption of the assembly line enabled

EU Tourism Policy: Objectives and Modalities

The European Union's tourism policy aims to achieve several key objectives:

• Facilitating tourism as an element of European integration.
• Promoting new modalities, such as rural tourism and eco-tourism.
• Improving information and protection for tourists.
• Enhancing the preparation of the sector through improved professional training.

Spain's Service Sector: Growth, Types, and Location

The tertiary sector in Spain has grown significantly, reaching a level comparable to other developed countries. This growth is attributed to several factors:

• Increased life expectancy of the population.
• A generalization of the welfare state.
• Increased demand for services from other economic activities.
• Implementation of regulations

The Industrial Revolution: A Transformative Era

The Industrial Revolution was a profound process that accelerated the transition from agrarian societies of the Old Regime to a new phase of significant demographic and economic growth. It transformed society and the political systems of states. This revolution began in England, driven by two key phenomena: demographic change and innovation in agriculture and transport. It addressed issues like subsistence crises, population expansion, and evolving standards of living.

England's Pioneering Role in Industrialization

England's pivotal role in the Industrial Revolution was shaped by five crucial factors:

• Accumulation of Commercial Capital: Reinvestment of profits from trade.
• Expansion of External Demand:

The Industrial Revolution: Origins and Profound Impact

Before the Industrial Revolution, society faced significant limitations that contributed to an economic downturn. Subsistence agriculture and cottage industries dominated, hindered by technological barriers. The population had limited purchasing power, and trade was slow, often hampered by customs duties within countries.

Birth of British Industrialization

In 18th-century Britain, particularly in Lancashire, the industrial process concentrated with the creation of numerous factories. The development of basic industries—textile and steel—marked what is known as the British Industrial Revolution.

Key Drivers of Modern Industry

The development of modern industry was driven by profound transformations... Continue reading "The British Industrial Revolution: Economic and Social Transformation" »

Research and Development (R&D)

Basic research includes all studies aimed at acquiring new scientific knowledge. Applied research involves original work undertaken to acquire new knowledge directed towards a specific practical aim or objective. Development involves the use of acquired knowledge for the production of new materials, products, or processes.

Extensive Landholdings (Landlordism)

Refers to large land areas (typically > 250 Ha in Spain, 100 Ha in the U.S.) often characteristic of Mediterranean regions.

Seafood Gathering

The activity of collecting bivalve molluscs from natural banks found in the sea.

Raw Material Definition

A primary product used in an industrial transformation process. The existence of abundant raw materials forms... Continue reading "Economic and Agricultural Terminology Explained" »

Property Tax (IBI) Regulations in Spain

Property Tax (Impuesto sobre Bienes Inmuebles or IBI) regulation is detailed in the Law on Local Finances Recast 2004 and in the Real Estate Cadastre Act, also a consolidated text of 2004.

Taxable Event, Taxpayer, and Accrual

The taxable event is holding an interest in the property. The law distinguishes four rights:

1. Administrative concession on the property: the taxpayer shall be the licensee.
2. Surface rights on the property: the taxpayer will have surface rights.
3. Usufruct right over the property: the taxpayer will be the beneficiary.
4. Property rights over the property: the taxpayer will be the owner.

Each taxable event excludes the others. The excluded are those who are behind in this order.

The law distinguishes... Continue reading "Property Tax (IBI) in Spain: Understanding the Regulations" »

Al-Andalus: Economic and Social Organization

Economic Advancements

In Al-Andalus, the economic foundation remained rooted in agriculture, but significant improvements were introduced. Irrigation technology advanced considerably, with the widespread use of irrigation ditches and wells. New crops were also introduced, such as citrus fruits, rice, and sugarcane.

While the ownership structure of land remained largely unchanged, with many large estates, the conquest led to a shift in ownership.

Urban Revitalization

With the arrival of the Muslims, there was a revitalization of urban life, and large cities emerged. The Islamic city was structured into several distinct parts:

• Medina: The core of the city, containing the main mosque and the souk (market)