Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Nueva Planta Decrees

The end of the War of the Spanish Succession meant the triumph of centralizing and standardizing absolutism. A new organization of the monarchy was established in the kingdoms defeated in the war. It was considered that the best way to govern was with the same laws and institutions, all dependent on the Crown. This new form of government came through the Nueva Planta Decrees, abolishing the privileges of Aragon and Valencia, as a result of the military occupation after the Battle of Almansa. The second decree was promulgated in 1715 for Mallorca, and for Catalonia in 1716. Only the Basque Country and Navarre maintained their historic privileges as a reward for their loyalty to Philip V.

The organization of the territories... Continue reading "Nueva Planta Decrees and Bourbon Reforms in Spain" »

Understanding the Enlightenment Era

The Enlightenment takes place in the era of liberal revolutions encouraged by the bourgeoisie, from the English Revolution of 1688, which had created a Parliament, to the French Republic of 1789.

Defining the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment is a historical period characterized by significant changes in the mentality and social organization of European countries during the eighteenth century.

Enlightenment Across Europe

The English Enlightenment

England is considered the country that originated the Enlightenment. The English Enlightenment had an empirical basis (Locke, Hume, etc.) and was oriented towards the cultivation of the natural sciences, such as physics developed by Newton.

The French Enlightenment

In France,... Continue reading "The Enlightenment: History, Philosophy, and Key Ideas" »

Medieval Kingdoms: The Rise of Royal Power

Medieval kingdoms were characterized by a marked polycentrism, where the heritage and character of power depended mainly on land ownership. In the kingdoms from the 11th century, estate representation bodies began to proliferate: Courts, Parliaments, Estates-General, where the King met with the bourgeoisie, the higher clergy, and nobility.

The King's Tax Battle with the Towns

Distinct battles were fought here; the most characteristic is the king's tax battle with the towns. The king needed money to fund his campaigns and shore up his authority among the feudal lords, and only the cities were able to provide it (in exchange for something). This brought up the system of covenants between the king and cities:... Continue reading "Medieval Kingdoms: Rise of Royal Power & Decline of Feudalism" »

Society and Culture in Restoration Spain

The society of Restoration Spain was characterized as a dual society with two distinct groups:

• A vast agricultural interior with subsistence lifestyles and limited progress.
• A few industrialized areas where a modern society gradually emerged.

The connection between these two societies was weak, with many inland regions living in isolation. Poverty was widespread, hindering consumption, saving, industrial development, and social modernization.

The power block was formed by a bourgeois oligarchy, including Basque steel magnates, Catalan textile entrepreneurs, and Castilian cereal producers.

Society in Rural Areas

During the Restoration period, rural social groups included:

• Agrarian oligarchy, predominant in the

Urbanization and Societal Structures

Defining Key Terms

Neighborhood: Refers to the increase in the population living in urban areas within a country or region.

Latin America: This term is used because the countries grouped within it share a common root in their source languages, primarily Latin-based Spanish and Portuguese.

Anglo America: This term is used because these lands were primarily occupied by English settlers of Germanic origin.

National Emergency Committee

Objectives of the National Emergency Committee

• Public Works
• National Police
• Health
• Finance

Functions of the National Emergency Committee

• Prevent and counter the effects of natural disasters or any other source.
• Create constant and local emergency departments.
• Prepare annual and special budgets.

Primary Sector: Agriculture and Food Production

Primary Sector: Obtaining purchase-related activities and food production.

Agricultural activities are limited by physical factors:

• Weather: Tampa. Soft precipitation, moderate.
• Relief: Plan.
• Soil: Depending on your fertility.
• Altitude: Causes a decrease in temperature, unfavorable for crops.
• Latitude: Near the equator, there is more regular sunlight.

Agriculture is also practiced in Africa and North America, where there is less sunlight.

Agricultural Landscapes

Agricultural Landscapes: The landscape is changed to extract agricultural products.

Field Types

• Open fields: No barriers, long and regular.
• Closed fields: Barriers, many extensions, irregular shapes.

Cropping Systems

• Irrigated: Large single-crop.
• Polyculture:

Industrial Revolution (1750-1860)

The Industrial Revolution was a process transforming energy sources into mechanical work using machines, leading to mass production and surplus. This era witnessed significant changes:

• Climate & Demographics: Population growth, urbanization, and agricultural advancements.
• Trade & Transportation: Increased internal and external trade, growth of exchanges, and improved transportation.
• Machines: Powering factories and workshops.

Stages of Industrial Revolution

• 1st Stage (1750-1860): Steam, coal, and iron ore.
• 2nd Stage (1860-1914): Electricity, oil, internal combustion engine, and steel.

Agricultural Transformations

• Norfolk system, new housing, and new crops from America (e.g., potatoes).
• New tools and increased

Agriculture in Underdeveloped Regions

This occurs in underdeveloped countries. It has low productivity, just enough for consumption. Rudimentary agricultural tools are used; modern machinery or chemical fertilizers are not used.

Slash-and-Burn Agriculture

• Occurs in equatorial or tropical rainforest climates where there is dense vegetation. The farmer fells the forest, slashes, and then burns it to clear a small patch for cultivation. Crops are grown in the small plot, fertilized with ash, using simple tools to produce food for home consumption. As the land is exhausted, the farmer leaves and clears another part of the forest, starting the process again. This is thus a shifting cultivation. This agricultural technique is considered a form of sustainable

Key Concepts of Urban Areas

City Concept

Quantitative: Over 10,000 inhabitants.

Economic Activity: Primarily tertiary sector.

Secondary Sector Level and Influence: Building and construction.

Spatial Criterion: Exercising influence over a territory.

Location

Specific Location: Concrete place where the city is situated.

Relative Location: Location in relation to other places.

Urban Morphology

External appearance of the city.

Urban Structure

Division of the city into areas with distinct morphology, features, and functions:

• Old Town: Part of the city that was urbanized from the outset.
• Ensanche: Growth of the city after the demolition of the walls, leading to a regular plan with wide, straight roads.
• Periphery: Outermost areas of the city.

Urban Functions

Main... Continue reading "Urban Concepts and City Dynamics: Key Definitions" »

History of Agriculture

Agriculture, the practice of cultivating land to obtain food, appeared in the Neolithic period. In the late 18th century, the UK experienced an agricultural revolution. This led many peasants (campesinos) to move to cities in search of work, starting a slow process of rural depopulation.

Agriculture Today

• Developed Countries: Agriculture employs less than 5% of the active population and achieves high productivity.
• Underdeveloped Countries: Agriculture employs the majority of the population, often using traditional farming techniques, resulting in low productivity.

Factors Influencing Agricultural Use

Physical Factors

• Climate: Each plant requires specific temperature and humidity conditions to grow.
• Relief: Altitude and the slope