Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

England's Industrial Revolution

The Rise of Capitalism

England's industrial and manufacturing revolution facilitated the consolidation of capitalism, creating two primary classes: the bourgeoisie (owners of capital) and the proletariat (workers who sold their labor for wages). Capitalism's origins trace back to the late Middle Ages (14th and 15th centuries) with increased trade and private property. However, its consolidation occurred in the 19th century as European powers sought new markets, eliminating local regulations and protective legislation. This included granting credits and trade advantages, often through diplomacy or war.

The Impact of Railways

The railway boom ignited the English economy. Unlike the textile industry, which required... Continue reading "Industrial Revolution: England vs. France - A Comparative Analysis" »

19th Century Spanish Society: Wealth and Stratification

The stratified society of 19th-century Spain was increasingly defined by wealth, marking the elimination of traditional legal privileges.

Social Classes in 19th-Century Spain

• The Upper Class (C. Alta)

  This class, though losing traditional territorial privileges, significantly increased its economic power, largely due to the confiscation of land. They were the primary political actors, often having restricted voting rights. The high industrial bourgeoisie was very small and concentrated (e.g., in PV, MAD, and CAT). This group included those interested in buying land and businesses to become ennobled.

• The Middle Class (C. Media)

  A growing group concentrated in Spanish cities, composed of professionals

Globalization: Impact on Daily Life

Globalization significantly affects our way of life.

Daily Life and Globalization

Globalization is evident in various aspects of our lives:

• Global Trade: Facilitates the acquisition of similar products worldwide, stimulated by advertising.
• Food: The habit of eating quickly has become widespread globally.
• Brands: Compete to offer attractive models.
• Tourism: Proposes exotic destinations.

Science and Culture

Discoveries by scientists and technicians worldwide are widely known. Successful films and music reach millions.

Risks of Globalization

• Diseases: Rapid communication can facilitate the spread of diseases like AIDS.
• Terrorism: The globalized world faces threats from violent groups rejecting the political and social order,

Sources of Energy

Oil

Oil is a nonrenewable energy source derived from plankton fossils. Organic debris deposited in the sea, without air, has transformed into a hydrocarbon over time. Oil exploitation began in the nineteenth century, and it became the main source of energy. Refining is necessary for its use. The problems of oil include its significant impact on developed society and transportation by sea or pipeline. Oil-exporting countries have created an association (OPEC). Member countries include the USA, Canada, Mexico, Venezuela, Norway, Russia, China, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, the United Arab Emirates, and Iran.

Coal

Coal is found in fossil plants from ancient forests that were flooded. It was first employed after the Industrial Revolution... Continue reading "Energy Sources and Industrial Sectors: A Comprehensive Look" »

Tertiary Sector

Tertiary sector activities are known as tertiary; any activities that constitute the means of exchange, presentation, and communication of products and services. It is the last sector of the economy, not being the least, but for being responsible for the final stage of the production route, i.e., product placement in the market.

Business: Its Importance

The tendency to exchange goods is as remote as the first human industries. What is today the international economic circuit, integrated into a global trading system, was once the barter of goods between"primitiv" tribes thousands of years ago. This trend has become one of the main features of contemporary society, which now conducts daily exchanges on a large scale, not only of... Continue reading "The Role of the Tertiary Sector in Global Commerce" »

The Carolingian Empire and Charlemagne's Reign

At the end of the 8th century, Charlemagne, King of the Franks, unified a large part of Western Europe. He elaborated laws, organized into chapters. His empire was divided into territories called counties, and to defend the borders, he appointed Marquis who commanded powerful armies. At his death, the empire was dismembered by the Treaty of Verdun.

Invasions of the 9th and 10th Centuries

During the 9th and 10th centuries, Europe experienced invasions by the Normans, Hungarians, and Muslims.

Feudalism: Society and Vassalage

Feudalism was the socio-economic and political system that was implemented during the Middle Ages in Europe. The relations between the king and the feudal lords were known as vassalage,... Continue reading "Medieval Europe: Society, Power, and Culture" »

Roman Architecture

The city was a key element of Roman civilization; the process of Romanization was essentially a process of urbanization. Roman towns exhibited a clear, uniform layout, mirroring the organization of military camps. They were laid out in a grid pattern within a defensive perimeter.

Urban Planning and City Layout

• Two main streets, the cardo (north-south) and the decumanus (east-west), formed the primary axes.
• At the ends of these streets were the city gates.
• At their confluence lay the forum, the central hub for political, economic, and religious life.
• Temples, public buildings, and memorials were erected at or around the forum.

The city of Rome itself presented a much more complex layout due to its organic growth, rather than pre-... Continue reading "Roman Civilization: Architecture and Sculpture Legacy" »

Spanish Agriculture, Livestock, and Fishing

Labor productivity can be categorized as follows:

• High-productivity agriculture: Characterized by a high output volume relative to the labor input.
• Low-productivity agriculture: Requires a significant amount of labor.

Combining these factors, we can define four types of agricultural landscapes:

• High-productivity intensive agriculture: Results from substantial investments in mechanization and technology, achieving high yields with minimal labor.
• Low-intensive agriculture: Involves low capital investment and high labor input.
• Extensive low-productivity agriculture: Typical of countries with advanced machinery and a small workforce.
• Extensive farming of low productivity: Employs rudimentary techniques and limited

12.1. The formation of a society classes. 12.2. Agricultural changes in types of measures:

• Freedom of contract farming
• Elimination of the manorial system
• Measures against primogeniture
• Confiscation

Consequences of land reform:

• The ownership structure became fully capitalist
• Concentration of ownership in fewer hands
• Loss of economic power of the clergy
• Maintenance of economic and social power of the nobility
• Growth of a class of absentee landowners
• Plunder of small farmers and increasing rents for tenants
• Worsening conditions of the rural proletariat
• Evolution of agriculture with modernization and specialization

12.3. Industrialization in Spain:

Spain had good conditions for industrialization in the 19th century, but failed due to lack of agrarian revolution... Continue reading "The Formation of a Society: Land Reform and Agricultural Changes in Spain" »

Medieval Economic, Social, and Political Crisis

The late Middle Ages experienced a significant economic and social demographic crisis, characterized by an aging population. Reliance on outdated agricultural methods led to a subsistence crisis. The economic downturn stemmed from a deep recession, triggering social and political instability.

Agricultural Decline and Trade Disruption

Crop yields declined due to field abandonment. The plague and the Hundred Years' War severely impacted trade. Recovery began in the late fifteenth century, driven by population growth and increased demand. The burgeoning wool industry stimulated livestock farming, boosting trade with the north, particularly in Aragon and Castile.

Political Instability in Castile and Aragon

A... Continue reading "Medieval Economic, Social, and Political Crisis: A Demographic Study" »