Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Traditional Agricultural Landscapes

These landscapes are characterized by their unique spatial organization with a low level of development. Traditional methods employ labor-intensive techniques and backward technology, resulting in low productivity. Production is primarily for family consumption, often involving polyculture and sometimes integrated with livestock. Land ownership is typically individual or collective.

Shifting Cultivation

Located in the equatorial and humid tropical climates of Africa, the Americas, and parts of Asia, shifting cultivation involves irregular parcels of land worked with primitive tools and techniques. Soil is cultivated for two to three years until exhausted, after which the village relocates. This practice results... Continue reading "Evolving Agricultural Landscapes: From Traditional to Modern" »

Enlightened Despotism

Political reformers aimed to boost the economy, promote culture and science, and reduce the Church's influence on education.

Art & Architecture

Rococo (18th Century)

A courtly style prevalent in aristocratic salons:

• Architecture in Caracas featured abundant decorative elements, curves, and irregular elements, primarily in urban palaces (small, intimate spaces). Chinese elements became a fashionable decorative motif.
• Painting mirrored the architectural style, preferring elegant and opulent scenes of palatial life. Key artists included Watteau, Tiepolo, and Giaquinto.

Neoclassicism

This style revived art forms from earlier eras, particularly Greek and Roman classicism.

• Architecture: Temples served as perfect models, featuring

Private vs. Market Services

Private services are paid for directly by the individuals or entities soliciting them.

Public Services

The state provides public services, funded through taxes. Public authorities may also collect fees for certain services.

Service Companies

Examples include banks, insurance companies, legal management, and advisory services.

Distribution Services

This category includes transport, postal services, and communications.

Social Services

Social services encompass health, public administration, and education.

Consumer Services

Consumer services include hospitality, leisure, repair, and cultural activities.

Importance of Services

Various indicators measure the importance of services. The diversity of services ranges from widespread... Continue reading "Understanding Service Sectors: Private, Public, and Social Services" »

Primary Sector: Agriculture, fisheries, livestock, mining, and raw materials obtained. Secondary Sector: Industry, processing raw materials. Tertiary Sector: Health (medical), transportation, education, retail (shops), administration (staff). Extensive Agriculture: Takes place in large areas of land. Intensive Agriculture: Takes place in small areas of land. Monoculture: A single plant crop such as rice or corn. Polyculture: Devoting the same land to different crops. Minifundio: Tiny tracts of land. Estates: Large tracts of land. Major Crops: Wheat (Europe), rice (East), corn (America). Tropical crops such as coffee (Brazil, Colombia), cocoa (Africa), and tea (India, China, Ceylon). Types of Herds: Sheep (Australia and Russia), beef (India,

Population Distribution

Population distribution across the Earth's surface is uneven, influenced by various physical and human factors.

Physical Factors

• Weather: Population density tends to be higher in temperate zones.
• Vegetation: Humans generally avoid areas with dense vegetation like forests and rainforests.
• Bodies of Water: Populations concentrate near water sources due to biological needs and economic activities (agriculture, industry).
• Relief: Flat terrains like plains, valleys, and deltas attract higher population densities.
• Soil: Historically, soil fertility has been a crucial factor in population distribution.

Human Factors

• Historical Factors: Historical events and migrations have shaped population densities in areas like the Far East and

Charles I of Spain and the War of Spanish Succession

Charles of Austria, under the name of Charles I (1516^[1]-1556), first joined in his person the crowns of Castile and Aragon, and was Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire as Charles V (1519-1558).

The War of Spanish Succession was an international conflict over the succession to the throne of Spain following the death of Charles II. It lasted from 1701 until 1713, although resistance in Catalonia continued until 1714 and in Mallorca until 1715. This war resulted in the establishment of the House of Bourbon in Spain. For this country, it was also a civil war between Bourbon and Austrian supporters belonging to the old Hispanic kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, whose last embers were not extinguished... Continue reading "Spanish History: Charles I, War of Succession, Al-Andalus" »

Farming Practices: Diverse Cropping Systems

Irrigated Agriculture

This method involves supplying large quantities of water to crops through artificial means like canals, ditches, sprinklers, and pools. It requires significant economic investment and careful water infrastructure management. Key crops include fruits, rice, cotton, vegetables, and sugar beets.

Dryland Farming

Dryland farming relies solely on natural rainfall for water supply. Crops grown using this method include pulses, sunflower, soybean, peanut, barley, rye, grapes, olives, and wheat—the Mediterranean trilogy.

Intensive Agriculture

This system maximizes yields through substantial capital investments (materials and technology) and/or labor. High productivity is achieved through... Continue reading "Farming Practices: A Deep Dive into Diverse Cropping Systems" »

AD 711: The Moors Invade Spain

In AD 711, the Moors invaded Spain from North Africa and conquered most of it.

AD 720: The Moors Cross the Pyrenees Mountains

In AD 720, the Moors crossed the Pyrenees Mountains and pushed into France.

AD 732: Defeat at the Battle of Poitiers

In AD 732, at the Battle of Poitiers, they were defeated and driven out of France.

13th Century: The Alhambra Palace

In the 13th century, the Moors built the Alhambra palace in Granada.

AD 1000: The Moors Begin to Lose Control

In AD 1000, the Moors began to lose control of Spain.

AD 1250: Moors Control Only Granada

In AD 1250, the Moors only controlled the area around Granada.

AD 1492: The Christian Rulers Drive Them Out

In AD 1492, the Christian rulers Ferdinand and Isabella drove them... Continue reading "The Moors in Spain: History, Culture, and Legacy" »

Crown of Aragon's Expansion in the Mediterranean

The expansion of the Crown of Aragon in the Mediterranean was based on successful long-distance trade with Italy, North Africa, and the East. From the 13th century, the city of Barcelona was the main driver behind this trade. The areas of greatest commercial interest for the Crown of Aragon were southern Italy, North Africa, and the ports of Syria and Egypt. Despite the commercial interests of the Mediterranean route, the military expeditions undertaken by the Aragonese monarchs were often motivated by dynastic issues.

The main steps of the Aragonese expansion were:

• The conquest of Valencia and the Balearic Islands by James I.
• The conquest of Sicily by Peter III (1282), which brought about war with

City Concept

Quantitative Criteria: Considers all core city populations exceeding a certain number of inhabitants.

Qualitative Criteria: Considers cities and villages that meet certain characteristics: high population density and high-rise dwellings, the predominance of economic activities and industries. The consideration of these criteria defines a core city as a large population center with high population density, a predominance of industrial activity, and an urban lifestyle.

Development Process

1. Pre-Industrial Cities (Until the Industrial Revolution)

Cities were small, served as centers of political and religious power, and fostered craft businesses.

• The first cities emerged in Mesopotamia on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, almost