Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

12.1. The formation of a society classes. 12.2. Agricultural changes in types of measures:

• Freedom of contract farming
• Elimination of the manorial system
• Measures against primogeniture
• Confiscation

Consequences of land reform:

• The ownership structure became fully capitalist
• Concentration of ownership in fewer hands
• Loss of economic power of the clergy
• Maintenance of economic and social power of the nobility
• Growth of a class of absentee landowners
• Plunder of small farmers and increasing rents for tenants
• Worsening conditions of the rural proletariat
• Evolution of agriculture with modernization and specialization

12.3. Industrialization in Spain:

Spain had good conditions for industrialization in the 19th century, but failed due to lack of agrarian revolution... Continue reading "The Formation of a Society: Land Reform and Agricultural Changes in Spain" »

Medieval Economic, Social, and Political Crisis

The late Middle Ages experienced a significant economic and social demographic crisis, characterized by an aging population. Reliance on outdated agricultural methods led to a subsistence crisis. The economic downturn stemmed from a deep recession, triggering social and political instability.

Agricultural Decline and Trade Disruption

Crop yields declined due to field abandonment. The plague and the Hundred Years' War severely impacted trade. Recovery began in the late fifteenth century, driven by population growth and increased demand. The burgeoning wool industry stimulated livestock farming, boosting trade with the north, particularly in Aragon and Castile.

Political Instability in Castile and Aragon

A... Continue reading "Medieval Economic, Social, and Political Crisis: A Demographic Study" »

1. The Crown of Castile

1.1 The Castilian Reconquista

The Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in 1212 marked Christian superiority against Muslims and led to the reconquest of Andalusia. Ferdinand III took Seville, Jaén, and the city of Cordoba. Murcia was conquered by Alfonso X the Wise, who ensured fairness of the proceedings.

1.2 Control of the Strait of Gibraltar in the 13th Century

The Marinids crossed the Strait and attacked Christians. Alfonso XI defeated them at the Battle of Salado, securing Castilian control of the Strait of Gibraltar. This victory initiated expeditions to the Canary Islands.

1.3 Government of Castile

Ferdinand III achieved the union of Castile and León, creating a huge area where the king was considered sovereign by the grace... Continue reading "Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Granada in the Middle Ages" »

Spain's Distinctive Geographical Features

Spain has always been characterized by its originality and geographical uniqueness, obtained mainly through three very distinctive features: its peninsular character, its particular topography, and its location and geographical position.

Peninsular Character

Spain is shaped like a peninsula attached to mainland Europe by a particularly narrow isthmus (440 km long) where the Pyrenees are located. These two characteristics of the junction – its narrowness and the geographic barrier posed by the Pyrenees – result in greater isolation for the Spanish territory. This gives it a much stronger peninsular nature than other Mediterranean peninsulas, such as the Italian and Balkan peninsulas.

Location and Position

Unlike... Continue reading "Spain's Unique Geography: Peninsula, Location, and Relief" »

Relief Units of the Iberian Peninsula

External Relief Units

• Axial Pyrenees (3)
• Prepyrenees (4)
• Cordillera Costero Catalana (15)
• Ebro Depression (6)
• Guadalquivir Depression (12)
• Subbética Cordillera (13)
• Penibética Cordillera (14)

Internal and Peripheral Relief Units

Peripheral Units

• Macizo Gallego (1)
• Cantabrian Mountains (2)
• Iberian System (8)
• Sierra Morena (11)

Internal Units

• Cuenca del Duero (5)
• Central System (7)
• Cuenca del Tajo (10)
• Montes de Toledo (9)

Rock Types of the Iberian Peninsula

The Iberian Peninsula is composed of three main rock types:

• Siliceous Rock: Found in the Macizo Gallego (1), western Cantabrian Mountains (2), Central System (7), Montes de Toledo (9), Sierra Morena (11), Axial Pyrenees (3), Cordillera Penibética (14), and part of the Cordillera

Historical Turning Points

Industrial Revolutions Compared

The First Industrial Revolution emerged during the 18th century in Europe, marking a fundamental change in the economic system and how work was performed, transitioning from manual labor and craft workshops to mechanized work and factories. This transformation was driven by several key inventions, including the steam engine and mechanical looms.

One European country that had significant visibility during the First Industrial Revolution was England (as it was primarily an agricultural country). It affected and expanded to other Western countries, such as Catalonia, impacting the textile industry.

Unlike the first, the Second Industrial Revolution was the result of the union between science,... Continue reading "Industrial & French Revolutions: Key Differences" »

Key Geographical and Agricultural Terms

Asylum: Protection granted by a state to a foreigner who cannot return to their country of origin due to a well-founded fear of persecution.

Real Growth: The balance of population change, considering net migration.

Emigration: The act of people leaving one place to settle in another, often due to compelling reasons.

Rural Exodus: The movement of population from rural areas to urban centers.

Immigration: The arrival of people into a particular place to live.

Migration: A change of residence from one municipality to another, either within the same country or across international borders.

Swings: Daily population movements from a place of residence to work or other activities.

Refugee: A person persecuted for reasons... Continue reading "Key Geographical and Agricultural Terms Defined" »

**Geoeconomic Regions and Domestic Trade in 19th Century Venezuela**

**Geoeconomic Regions**

Areas were located around major ports, which became the core driving forces of these regions. They were linked to the global capitalist market, exercising the role of tropical exporter and importer of goods. These activities were controlled by foreign commercial houses, which financed the crop, granted loans, and paid taxes to the State Customs.

**Division of Areas**

**Western Region**

Formed by the current states of Zulia, Mérida, Táchira, and Trujillo. Coffee was produced in the Andes, and cattle and cocoa in the depression of Lake Maracaibo. The products were transferred to the port of Maracaibo and then to overseas markets.

**Central-Western Region*

Geography and Environment

• Acid rain: Phenomenon that occurs due to the concentration of nitrogen and sulfur gases in the atmosphere.
• Aquifer: Geological formation that allows the circulation of water.
• Arid area: Area where water has no river outlet to the sea.
• Coast: Land slope.
• Desertification: A process by which land that does not have desert weather becomes desertified.
• Earthquake: A sudden and violent shaking of the ground, sometimes causing great destruction, as a result of movements within the earth's crust or volcanic action.
• Erosion: The process of intact soil wear (rock).
• Estuary: The tidal mouth of a large river, where the tide meets the stream.
• Fallow: Land left unplanted to recover its fertility.
• Fault: A discontinuity forming a rock fracture

The Primary Sector in Spain

The primary sector has traditionally been the most important sector of the Spanish economy. However, since the mid-20th century, the development of the industrial and financial sectors has reduced its overall significance.

Major Crops

Cereals

Barley, wheat, and corn are primarily grown in the Spanish communities of Castile and León, Castile-La Mancha, and Aragon.

Vineyards and Olive Groves

Olive cultivation is concentrated in Andalusia, particularly in the provinces of Jaén and Córdoba. Vineyards dominate Castile-La Mancha, Valencia, Catalonia, Andalusia, and La Rioja.

Orchards

Citrus fruits (oranges, lemons, etc.) are primarily grown in the Valencian Community (60% of production). Non-citrus fruits like apples, cherries,... Continue reading "Spain's Primary Sector: Agriculture, Livestock, and EU Integration" »