Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Spanish Exploration and Settlement

Most Europeans saw the Americas as virgin land ripe for exploitation by settlers, and their mission to civilize the indigenous peoples and put them to work.

The Columbian Exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and human societies - including ideas about religion, time, and land ownership and use - had far-reaching effects.

1 Christopher Columbus

The discoverer of America: Columbus Day is celebrated as an official holiday in most states on the second Monday of October, commemorating his landing on San Salvador (Bahamas) on 12 October 1492, although he never set foot on U.S. territory and Viking sailors had visited Newfoundland 500 years before.

Many Native Americans regard Columbus and other European explorers and... Continue reading "European Exploration and Settlement of the Americas" »

English Language Practice Exercises

Why the Leopard Got Its Spots

Grammar Practice

1. They don't pay scientists much.
2. She can't have chosen that dress.
3. Ann is getting more and more scared.
4. I wish I had called him yesterday.

Vocabulary

• Noun from "goal": aim
• Word from the same root as "survive": survivor

Writing Task: Wildlife Protection

Would you like to have a job related to wildlife protection?

Work related to terrestrial life would help preserve it. Nowadays, we should care for it and not end up destroying it. Many people think that nature takes care of itself, but they are wrong, and this attitude will bring consequences in the future.

Firstly, I want to say that this problem should be given much more importance than it currently receives. Caring for species... Continue reading "Grammar, Vocabulary, and Writing Practice" »

The Late Medieval Crisis: 13th to 15th Centuries

The Middle Ages, from the 13th to the 15th century, experienced a deep crisis. In the 14th century, this was largely due to the Black Death of 1348, which resulted in a severe imbalance between the population and effective food production. Hunger and malnutrition weakened the population, making them more susceptible to disease.

Consequences of the Black Death

The epidemic considerably reduced the population and had the following consequences:

• A decrease in production due to a reduction in labor.
• A concentration of land ownership as many rural people emigrated to other places free from the plague.
• An increase in feudal power over the serfs.
• In Castile, stately rents decreased while wages increased due

LANDSCAPE PAINTING 19TH CENTURY

Royal Academy founded in 1768; Foundation of the Water-colour society in 1804; Painters fought for more recognition compared with the other arts (literature and architecture in particular); New National Gallery was founded in 1824.

Caspar David Friedrich

1- German romantic landscape painter. Best known for allegorical landscapes which typically feature contemplative figures silhouetted against night skies, morning mists, barren trees or gothic or megalithic ruins. 2- Topographical interest endured 3- Travel at home and abroad, the search for the picturesque and primitive, the medieval. Ex: Wanderer above the Sea of Fog (1818): In the foreground, a young man stands upon a rocky precipice with his back to the viewer.... Continue reading "19th Century Landscape Painting and Romanticism" »

The Viking Resistance of Wessex

The Vikings defeated all the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms with one exception: Wessex. How was Wessex able to resist the Viking attacks?

Initially, the most important answer is the element of time. Because the attacks came from the North to the South, Wessex had time to anticipate the attacks and prepare. They were not caught by surprise.

Wessex adopted several key measures to combat the Vikings:

Defensive Measures

1. The Creation of Burhs

Wessex created strong defensive positions called Burhs. These structures provided a safe haven for people to defend themselves. Usually, these were created with the same structure (a kind of cross). We know that there were around 30 Burhs in Wessex thanks to a document of the age. In the... Continue reading "The Rise of Wessex: How a Kingdom Resisted the Vikings" »

Ireland

: The situation was very similar to Scotland one’s. Problems started in 1689 when James II counted with support in France, so a battle against William of Orange took place; it was the Battle of Boyne that ended with William’s victory.

It was a period of colonization and England used the colonies to obtain benefits. All of that is going to be known as the First British Empire. The 18^th century was a period of tremendous change. One thing that we need to do is to explain how things stand outside the British Isles.

For that we have to go back to the year 1588, which is the year of the Great Armada. That is an important year because this is the moment when England started the gradual rise for the power of the sea supremacy. There were... Continue reading "The First British Empire: Colonization and Sea Supremacy" »

19th Century Britain: Social and Political Transformations

The Genesis of Modern Policing: Robert Peel and the "Bobbies"

Sir Robert Peel, serving as Prime Minister, was instrumental in the creation of the modern police force. The officers who worked for him became affectionately known as "bobbies," a direct reference to his name. This marked a significant step in establishing organized law enforcement in England.

Evolving Labor Laws and Working Conditions

Significant changes in working conditions gradually emerged, particularly impacting child and youth labor:

• Children under 9 years of age were prohibited from employment.
• Boys under 14 years could work a maximum of 48 hours per week or 9 hours per day.
• Young men (under 18 years) were restricted to

Free Ports in the Canary Islands (1822-1900)

The necessity to establish a new trade and fiscal framework prompted the search for a method to alleviate the islands' poverty and hardship. Free ports emerged as this solution, following a long process:

• 1822: Murphy promoted a reduction in tariffs.
• 1830: Establishment of the Canary Islands Development Board to promote tobacco and cochineal development.
• 1845: Tax Reform approved the instructions from the mainland tariff.
• Grueling fiscal effects occurred.
• A wave of death and emigration ensued again.
• From 1851: A powerful campaign demanded commercial freedoms.
• Protests, council discussions, and the unsustainable situation were acknowledged by the government of Juan Bravo Murillo, enacting the free ports in

1. Physical Geography of the Iberian Peninsula

1.3. Terrestrial Relief of Spain and Andalusia

The major sets of terrestrial relief in Spain and Andalusia include:

• The Old Beds: Dating from the Primary Era, these are associated with ancient folds. These large baseboards or shields form the heart of continents or some of their edges. In the Iberian Peninsula, this includes the Plateau (Meseta Central) and its peripheral units.
• The Mountain Ranges: Recent orographical formations (e.g., Alpine folding). These mountains border the Mediterranean (Southern Europe and North Africa) and continue through Asia to the Himalayas. In the Iberian Peninsula, the Betic Cordilleras and the Pyrenees are prominent.
• The Sedimentary Basins: Sunken areas covered with

Factors Driving Britain's Industrial Emergence

In its early stages, the Industrial Revolution in Britain was based on the abundant resources of iron and coal. The labor force, unlike some counterparts, was not entirely conservative; it readily accepted the challenge of new work routines and habits. British society was exceptional in that many of the aristocracy were prepared to take an interest or make an investment in commerce. The rapid weapon development of the 18th century fostered experimentation and flexibility in research. Furthermore, a definite pride in craftsmanship at all levels helped implement the imaginations of the inventors.

Key Inventions and Developments

The usual starting point of the Industrial Revolution is generally taken... Continue reading "Britain's Industrial Revolution: Origins and Innovations" »