Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Urban Hierarchies

World Cities

• World metropolises: New York and Tokyo.
• Megacities: Delhi.
• Megalopolises.
• Global cities: These exert global influence regarding certain activities, such as technology in Seattle or trade in Dubai.

Continental and Regional Cities

• Continental cities: They usually govern a large number of areas and perform different activities (e.g., London, Madrid, San Francisco).
• Regional cities: They govern a large number of areas, but fewer than the continental cities (e.g., Milan, Barcelona).

Medium-Sized Cities

These cities are less polluted, foster better relationships, and offer the best quality of life. Definition: They represent a balanced urban model.

World Cities in the 21st Century

Globalization has changed all cities.

Cities in

The Iberian Peninsula: Kingdoms and Conquests

The Rise of Asturias and León

1. Who moved the capital to León, and renamed Asturias as the Kingdom of León?

○ Ordoño II

2. When was Asturias renamed as León?

○ In the 10th century

3. Who made Castile an independent county and when?

○ Fernán González in the 10th century

4. Who unified Castile with León and when?

○ Ferdinand I unified them in 1038

5. From which kingdom did Aragon become independent and when?

○ From Navarre in the 11th century

6. What were the first two capitals of the Kingdom of Asturias?

○ Cangas de Onís and Oviedo

7. What was the Hispanic March?

○ A zone established by Charlemagne in 795 as a defensive barrier between the Al-Andalus and the Carolingian Empire.

8. Who conquered... Continue reading "A History of Spain: From the Crown of Aragon to the Age of Exploration" »

The Role of Cities in Innovation and Diversity

Cities and regions are an important issue for sociologists, economists, and urbanists. Marshall, Robert Park, and Jane Jacobs have seen cities as cauldrons of diversity and difference and as fonts for creativity and innovation. "Great cities have always been melting pots of races and cultures," said Park, Burgess, and MacKenzie (1925).

Over the last decades, students have forgotten the creativity and innovation among other basic themes.

Why Geography Is Not Dead

With the internet and modern telecommunication and transportation systems, it might seem that it is no longer necessary for people to be together to work, and then they won't be. "The new economy operates in a space rather than a place," said... Continue reading "Urban Dynamics: The Power of Place in the Creative Age" »

Global Population Dynamics and Growth

World population grew very slowly before the 19th century. Birth rates were high, but death rates were also high. From the early 19th century, the death rate in developed countries fell due to improved medicine and better nutrition following improvements in agriculture, causing the world population to increase.

In the 20th century, there was rapid population growth, often referred to as the Population Explosion.

Regions with Low Population Growth

These regions typically have low population growth, often around 0.2%. This trend is linked to several factors:

• Low birth rate.
• More working women.
• Contraception is widely available.
• Families delay having children.
• It is expensive to raise a family.
• Social values are changing.

The Developed World

Main Developed Countries

• United States: As the economic and political leader of the world, it is one of the most developed countries. The defense of individual freedom and the notion that all individuals are considered equal are basic characteristics of this country.

  The US has abundant raw materials and a massive agricultural yield, as well as a high standard of education with some of the world’s most prestigious universities (such as Harvard and Yale). It is home to many of the most important companies in the world (including Apple, Microsoft, Google, Facebook, Coca-Cola, PepsiCo, McDonald’s, and General Motors).

• European Countries (European Union): These nations also have old and prestigious universities (such as Oxford,

Travelers and the Literature of Discovery

Renaissance Discoveries and Global Expansion

• Taking the eastern route around the Cape of Good Hope, Vasco da Gama reached India in 1497–99.
• The Portuguese reached China in 1514.
• Voyaging westward, Christopher Columbus discovered the Bahamas, Cuba, Trinidad, and Venezuela (1492–98).
• Ferdinand Magellan rounded Cape Horn, and the Pacific was opened to the Western World.
• With Spanish and Portuguese domination ratified by the Papacy, northern explorers seeking a northwest passage discovered North America.
• The Hellenic view of nature was symmetrical; the Greeks believed a habitable land mass must exist in the Southern Hemisphere corresponding to that in the north.
• Gulliver claims it as his personal belief that

Global Distribution of Industrial Activities

Industrial activities are concentrated in developed countries, especially in four large areas: the European Union, the United States, Japan, and Southeast Asia.

Industrial activities are now being redistributed worldwide because developed countries are becoming deindustrialized. They are transferring some of their production processes to other countries where labour and environmental legislation is less strict.

Industrial Development in the European Union

The Industrial Revolution began in England and spread to Belgium, France, and Germany, making Europe the most industrialized region in the world throughout the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century.

Today’s European Union is very industrially... Continue reading "Global Industrial Distribution and Regional Hubs" »

The Rise of Authoritarian Monarchies in Europe

In the 15th century, European monarchs reinforced their power by reducing the influence of the Church, nobility, municipalities, and parliaments. This era was marked by various civil wars. To consolidate their authority, monarchs implemented several key changes:

• Created a bureaucracy and a professional, centralized administration.
• Built a standing army with troops paid for and directed by the monarch.
• Increased taxes to finance their growing activities.
• Established a diplomatic system to maintain relations with other countries.

The Formation of Great Kingdoms

During this period, Europe was divided into small states, but they began to unite through marriage alliances and conquest. Four great kingdoms emerged... Continue reading "The Rise of Authoritarian Monarchies and Spanish Unification" »

Types and Causes of Human Migration

Migration is the movement of persons from one place to another. There are different types of migrations, including:

• Internal migration: Movement within a country, mostly from rural to urban areas.
• International migration: Movement between different countries.

People migrate for different reasons such as better life opportunities, family, and culture; however, they also face problems of adaptation in their new environments, such as different customs or racism.

Economic Drivers and Safety Concerns

The pursuit of better jobs is one of the main reasons for people to emigrate abroad. Everyone needs money to survive, and when your country is unable to offer employment opportunities so you can earn the money you need,... Continue reading "Why People Migrate: Opportunities and Obstacles" »

Key Figures of the Age of Exploration

Hernán Cortés: Spanish explorer who landed on the coast of Mexico in 1519. In 1521, he and his Indian allies captured and demolished Tenochtitlan.

Malinche: A young Indian woman who served as Cortés's translator and adviser. The Spanish called her Doña Malinche.

Moctezuma: Aztec emperor who drove the Spanish from Tenochtitlan. He was killed in the fighting.

Francisco Pizarro: Spanish explorer who captured and killed Atahualpa.

Atahualpa: Incan ruler who won the throne from his brother in a bloody civil war.

Colonial Administration and Society

Council of the Indies: Established to pass laws and maintain strict control over the colonies.

Encomienda: The right to demand labor or tribute from Native Americans in... Continue reading "Key Figures and Concepts of the Age of Exploration and Enlightenment" »