Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Estate Society: Social Structure

The social organization during this period was known as the Estate society, a closed system comprising three distinct groups, often referred to as the Estates of the Realm:

• The First Estate: Formed by members of the clergy (bishops, priests, monks, friars, etc.).
• The Second Estate: Composed of members of the nobility (dukes, counts, barons, etc.).

Both the First and Second Estates enjoyed traditional privileges: they were exempt from paying taxes and lived on the rents received from their lands.

• The Third Estate: Comprised the bourgeoisie (traders, craftsmen, bankers, etc.) and the peasantry. The bourgeoisie was further divided into two groups based on economic power:
  • The Upper Bourgeoisie: Included rich merchants,

Navarre's Migration History

Emigration was the primary migratory flow throughout the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. This emigration primarily targeted destinations outside America, including France and, to a lesser extent, Guipúzcoa, often linked to the industrialization processes of those territories. Most migrants originated from mountainous regions.

In the 1960s, Navarre became a destination for Spanish internal migration, driven by the country's industrial transformation. Immigrants primarily settled in Pamplona and neighboring municipalities (e.g., Burlada, Berriozar), as well as other cities like Alsasua and Tudela. These immigrants largely came from major regions such as Castilla y León, Extremadura, and Andalusia.... Continue reading "Navarre's Population Dynamics: Migration & Demographic Trends" »

Bourbon Economic Reforms in Spain

The reformist spirit of the Bourbons extended to the economy and contributed to overcoming the economic crisis that had affected Spain during the seventeenth century. However, these reforms were not able to definitively resolve the serious shortcomings and deficiencies that plagued the Spanish economy.

Industry Under the Bourbon Dynasty

The industrial sector presented three outstanding features:

• Dominance of Artisanal Production: Production remained largely artisanal and little advanced. It was supported by urban guilds and rural crafts. The guilds, however, were a significant problem for development. Home work allowed cheaper production, but not necessarily better quality. Consequently, Spanish industry's ability

St Kilda: Life and Evacuation

Introduction to St Kilda

110 miles off the west coast of Scotland is a small group of volcanic islands. They are variously called Hirta, Boreray, and other local names, but together they are known as St Kilda. The cliffs rise to more than 400 meters (1400 feet) above the gray water, and this is home to millions of seabirds. Until 1930, a small colony of Scottish people lived there, whose community had survived for over 2000 years.

Life on the Islands

Life was precarious on St Kilda, located in the Atlantic Ocean well beyond the protective barrier of the Outer Hebrides. With an average January temperature of -10 to -20 ºC, the islanders were often isolated for months at a time by bad weather. They lived as they always... Continue reading "St Kilda: The Last Days of an Island Community" »

Spain's Rich Natural Heritage

Geographical Distribution of Key Regions

The diverse natural landscapes of Spain encompass a wide array of provinces and autonomous communities, including: A Coruña, Lugo, Orense, Asturias, Cantabria, Vizcaya, Guipúzcoa, Álava, Huesca, La Rioja, Navarra, Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, Tarragona, Madrid, Segovia, Burgos, and León.

Mountain Plant Species: Characteristics and Habitat

Certain mountain plant species, typically found between 1000 and 2000 meters above sea level, poorly tolerate extreme heat and cold. These species require high humidity and prefer calcareous soils, although they also adapt to both calcareous and siliceous substrates. They are primarily distributed across the Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees,... Continue reading "Spain's Natural Heritage: Biodiversity, Protected Areas, and Key Species" »

Understanding Human History

History studies the past of human beings through time and space. To establish the order and dates of historical events, we use chronology.

Prehistory: The Dawn of Humanity

Prehistory starts with the appearance of the first hominins and ends with the invention of writing.

Palaeolithic Age (Old Stone Age)

Tools, or utensils, were carved from approximately 2.5 million years ago.

Neolithic Age (New Stone Age)

Some tools were made of polished stone.

Metal Age

Tools were made of metal.

Historical Eras: From Writing to the Present

History starts with the invention of writing.

Ancient History

From the invention of writing until the fall of the Western Roman Empire.

The Middle Ages

From 476 until the fall of Constantinople to the Turks,... Continue reading "Human History: Eras, Evolution, and Prehistoric Civilizations" »

Reign of the Catholic Monarchs: Society & Economy

Political and Social Organization

The basic economic activities were agriculture and livestock.

Castile's Livestock-Based Economy

During the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, the Castilian economy continued to be mainly oriented towards sheep livestock. Castilian wool remained the main export through the ports of Biscay. The monarchy favored protecting farmers' interests, passing laws that protected the powerful Mesta, which brought together Castilian livestock farmers. The consequence was a brake on the expansion of agriculture, which hampered population growth. After the colonization of America, gold and silver arrived, and increased trade relations stimulated economic prosperity.

Crown of Aragon'

Spanish Labor Movement: Origins and Ideological Currents

The Democratic Sexenio recognized the right of assembly and association, which allowed the labor movement to emerge from hiding and form its own class organizations, expanding simultaneously. The First International (AIT, 1864) arrived in Spain with Fanelli, an anarchist leader who disseminated Bakuninist principles among Catalan workers and Andalusian peasants. These principles included:

• Removal of the state
• Collectivization of property
• Apolitical stance

The spread of Marxism (Lafargue) was delayed, and despite being the ideological majority within the AIT, it only gained significant traction in Madrid. The confrontation between these two ideological currents prevented an alliance. Internationalism... Continue reading "Spanish Labor Movement: Ideologies and Evolution" »

Spanish Industry: General Characteristics

This section outlines the key characteristics and challenges facing Spanish industry.

1.1: Shortage of Raw Materials

Spain is deficient in raw materials of organic origin. Despite a variety of subsurface materials, their scarcity and poor quality necessitate imports. Spain must import most minerals, with only industrial rocks available in surplus for export.

1.2: Energy Deficit

The production and consumption of energy have experienced continued, spectacular growth since the 1960s. To secure the necessary energy for the country's operation, due to limited primary resources and a lack of domestic oil reserves, Spain must import oil, gas, coal, and electricity. The level of supply, therefore, is very precarious... Continue reading "Spanish Industry: Characteristics and Challenges" »

2 Emirate and Caliphate: The IP invasion was due to two factors: the dynamic expansion of Islam and the weakness of the Visigoths. The Gothic king Rodrigo was defeated in 711 by the Arab and Berber army led by Tarik. He later managed to conquer all the IP because Hispanics hoped Muslims would be less harsh. Only a few remained in the Christian faith, while others converted to Islam. Al-Andalus became a province of the Caliphate of Damascus. The Umayyads were replaced by the Abbasids in 750, who made Baghdad the capital of the Caliphate. Abderraman fled to Al-Andalus and created the independent Emirate of Cordoba. His successors boosted the economy and culture and improved the infrastructure of the Romans. In 1031, internal struggles led to... Continue reading "The Rise and Cultural Impact of Al-Andalus in History" »