Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Imperialism

Causes

Economics

• Search for Raw Materials: Industries were depleting their sources. To further increase production, they needed to find new sources of raw materials and cheap, abundant energy. Colonies were assigned the role of supplying metropolitan industries with:

  • Coal, oil, etc.
  • Raw materials for industries
  • Various industrial products such as tea, sugar, cocoa, etc.

• Search for New Markets: Colonies served as markets for industrial products, primarily catering to the population of the metropolis.

• Labor: The use of unskilled, cheap, and docile (often slave) labor reduced the cost of raw material extraction and contributed to the success of plantation agriculture.

Politics

• Prestige: States adopted policies of prestige to win over the masses.

19th Century Liberal Reforms and Industrialization in Spain

Liberal Land Reform

Liberal land reform in 19th century Spain aimed to dismantle the old feudal system and introduce capitalist modes of production and ownership. Implemented in the first half of the century, the reform involved:

• Dissolving feudal landholdings.
• Redistributing land, primarily from the Church and municipalities.
• Consolidating private property rights.

While some land was acquired by middle-class and affluent farmers who could invest and profit from it, a significant portion remained in the hands of the previous landowners.

The Rise of Industrialization

Steel Industry

Early Spanish steel production in Andalusia relied on iron ore and charcoal. Later, Asturias became a steel center,... Continue reading "19th Century Spanish Liberal Reforms & Industrialization" »

Section A

1. • a) True: Egypt's population is expected to double by 2050.
   • b) False: The government is keen to encourage people to settle in the desert by moving ahead with an expensive plan to reclaim 3.4 million acres of desert over the next 10 years.
2. • a) Tarek el-Kowmey is proud of his crops. He farms near the Development Centre that is working with sophisticated techniques to green the desert. He cultivates his crops on fertile land that used to be just sand.
   • b) Desert tourism can be more profitable (it brings in more money) and will not destroy fragile flora and fauna (possible attractions for tourists).
3. Vocabulary/Grammar:
   • a) vast
   • b) likely
   • c) because
   • d) rather than
4. Sentence Completion/Correction:
   • a) as... from
   • b) travelling/traveling... most ancient.

Sustainable Development & Resource Management

Environmental problems are closely linked to development patterns. This leads us to examine two distinct forms of development: uncontrolled development and sustainable development.

Uncontrolled Development: Environmental Consequences

This approach, based on developmental and liberal theory, remains the dominant system in many developed countries today. It has been described as predatory, exploitative, and ultimately unsustainable.

Since liberal economists did not consider the environment as a system in their economic analysis, they were unable to establish the maximum dimensions of the economic system and disregarded the limits of its expansion, hence the goal of continuous growth.

Sustainable Development

Understanding the Old Regime

The term Old Regime (or Ancien Régime) designates the period of history before the French Revolution, the liberal revolutions, and industrialization.

Defining the Old Regime

It extends from the late fifteenth century to the late eighteenth century. In Spain during this period, the Austrian and Bourbon dynasties reigned.

Government and Power

The Old Regime was characterized by absolute monarchy as the form of government. However, this was mediated by the strong presence of the Church in public life and the existence of representative institutions at different levels, such as the courts.

The Agrarian Economy

The economy was largely agrarian, engaging more than 80% of the population. The principal landowners were the nobility... Continue reading "The Old Regime Explained" »

Estate Society: Social Structure

The social organization during this period was known as the Estate society, a closed system comprising three distinct groups, often referred to as the Estates of the Realm:

• The First Estate: Formed by members of the clergy (bishops, priests, monks, friars, etc.).
• The Second Estate: Composed of members of the nobility (dukes, counts, barons, etc.).

Both the First and Second Estates enjoyed traditional privileges: they were exempt from paying taxes and lived on the rents received from their lands.

• The Third Estate: Comprised the bourgeoisie (traders, craftsmen, bankers, etc.) and the peasantry. The bourgeoisie was further divided into two groups based on economic power:
  • The Upper Bourgeoisie: Included rich merchants,

Navarre's Migration History

Emigration was the primary migratory flow throughout the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. This emigration primarily targeted destinations outside America, including France and, to a lesser extent, Guipúzcoa, often linked to the industrialization processes of those territories. Most migrants originated from mountainous regions.

In the 1960s, Navarre became a destination for Spanish internal migration, driven by the country's industrial transformation. Immigrants primarily settled in Pamplona and neighboring municipalities (e.g., Burlada, Berriozar), as well as other cities like Alsasua and Tudela. These immigrants largely came from major regions such as Castilla y León, Extremadura, and Andalusia.... Continue reading "Navarre's Population Dynamics: Migration & Demographic Trends" »

St Kilda: Life and Evacuation

Introduction to St Kilda

110 miles off the west coast of Scotland is a small group of volcanic islands. They are variously called Hirta, Boreray, and other local names, but together they are known as St Kilda. The cliffs rise to more than 400 meters (1400 feet) above the gray water, and this is home to millions of seabirds. Until 1930, a small colony of Scottish people lived there, whose community had survived for over 2000 years.

Life on the Islands

Life was precarious on St Kilda, located in the Atlantic Ocean well beyond the protective barrier of the Outer Hebrides. With an average January temperature of -10 to -20 ºC, the islanders were often isolated for months at a time by bad weather. They lived as they always... Continue reading "St Kilda: The Last Days of an Island Community" »

Spain's Rich Natural Heritage

Geographical Distribution of Key Regions

The diverse natural landscapes of Spain encompass a wide array of provinces and autonomous communities, including: A Coruña, Lugo, Orense, Asturias, Cantabria, Vizcaya, Guipúzcoa, Álava, Huesca, La Rioja, Navarra, Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, Tarragona, Madrid, Segovia, Burgos, and León.

Mountain Plant Species: Characteristics and Habitat

Certain mountain plant species, typically found between 1000 and 2000 meters above sea level, poorly tolerate extreme heat and cold. These species require high humidity and prefer calcareous soils, although they also adapt to both calcareous and siliceous substrates. They are primarily distributed across the Cantabrian Mountains and the Pyrenees,... Continue reading "Spain's Natural Heritage: Biodiversity, Protected Areas, and Key Species" »