Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

_{^{Natural Resources: Essentials for Human Needs}}

_{^{Humans rely on nature for resources, categorized as:}}

• _{^{Non-renewable: Fossil fuels (coal, oil, natural gas).}}
• _{^{Renewable: Solar, wind, tides.}}
• _{^{Potentially Renewable: Fresh water, arable land, forests, fisheries.}}

_{^{Depletion of resources stems from:}}

1. _{^{Disproportionate population growth and fossil fuel dependence.}}
2. _{^{Excessive use of potentially renewable resources (e.g., overconsumption of water, intensive farming, deforestation).}}

_{^{Countermeasures:}}

• _{^{Global: Renewable energy, organic farming, aquaculture, environmental education, protected ecosystems.}}
• _{^{Individual: Resource efficiency (fuel, water, electricity).}}

_{^{Growth vs. Development}}

_{^{Economic growth doesn't always equate to development. Western economic systems have led to}}

Tourist Areas in Spain

Importance of tourism: Tourism is a major economic driver for Spain, offsetting the balance of payments deficit. The tourism boom began in the mid-1950s, and the number of visitors has grown steadily since. Today, the Spanish economy is heavily reliant on tourism, with revenues equivalent to 30% of total exports. Without tourism, the country's economic growth would be significantly lower.

Factors in Spanish Tourism Development

Spain has always held a certain exotic appeal for educated Europeans, reinforced by its rich Arab culture, castles, and historical sites. Today, the attraction to Spain is mainly due to its climate, with dry summers, high temperatures, and abundant sunny days. The long coastline, scenic beauty, wealth... Continue reading "Spain Tourism: Key Areas, Development & Challenges" »

The Discovery of America: A Turning Point

The arrival of Christopher Columbus in America in 1492 marked one of the most pivotal events in European history, profoundly shaping the political, social, and economic landscape for centuries to come.

Motivations for Exploration

• The increasing difficulties faced by the Byzantine Empire, which eventually fell with the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, forced Western Europeans to seek alternative trade routes to Asia.
• By the late fifteenth century, it was clear that the Portuguese had surpassed the Spaniards in the race for spices and precious metals, thanks to their established dominance along the West African coast.

Columbus's Proposal and Voyage

At this time, Christopher Columbus, who had... Continue reading "The Age of Discovery: Columbus, Tordesillas, and Global Impact" »

Active Population in Spain

The active population comprises individuals who are able and willing to work. This group is divided into:

• Employed population: People who work and receive compensation.
• Unemployed population: Individuals actively seeking employment.

The inactive population includes those unable to work or who do not receive a salary, such as retirees, individuals under 16, students, homemakers, and the sick.

Primary Sector (5% of Employment)

Agriculture

In Spain, abundant dryland crops (secano) include cereals, vines, and olive trees, predominantly in Castilla-La Mancha, Castilla y León, and Andalusia. Irrigated fruits and vegetables are grown in Andalusia, Valencia, and Murcia.

Livestock

The most abundant livestock is pigs, raised mainly... Continue reading "Understanding Spain's Active Population and Economic Sectors" »

Hominization Process

The hominization process encompasses the evolutionary changes from a primate ancestor to the appearance of the first hominid species. This required a series of adaptations and modifications.

Prehistoric Eras

Paleolithic

The Paleolithic is a prehistoric stage characterized by the use of carved stone tools, although other materials were also used.

Neolithic

The Neolithic period began about 5,200 years ago, marked by the adoption of agricultural techniques, livestock, and pottery.

Bronze Age

The Bronze Age is the period of civilization which developed the metallurgy of bronze, resulting from a copper alloy.

Iron Age

The Iron Age is the stage in the development of a civilization in which the discovery and use of iron became widespread.... Continue reading "Human Evolution and Prehistoric Eras" »

Globalization: A Comprehensive Overview

Globalization is a series of changes transforming the planet's distinct societies into a process of continuous reciprocal relationships, primarily involving increasingly interdependent countries.

Key Agencies Supporting Globalization

• Economic Globalization: Characterized by increased economic interconnectedness between countries.
• Political or Geopolitical Globalization: A global sense that transcends individual country boundaries.
• Cultural Globalization: A tendency towards a planetary culture modeled after Western values, often transmitted through advertising, film, and television.

Principal Problems of Globalization

• The gap between rich and poor countries widens.
• Poorer countries struggle to afford essential

Tertiary Sector in Spain

The tertiary sector, or service sector, is a vital part of the Spanish economy, encompassing trade, transport, tourism, and other services.

Trade in Spain

Domestic Trade

Domestic trade is widespread in Spain, particularly in urban areas and those with higher income levels. It is dominated by small shops and traditional trading activities. In recent years, it has undergone a major restructuring:

• Modernization driven by new consumption patterns and technology.
• Expansion of new forms of trade.
• Crisis of traditional small businesses struggling to compete with large commercial enterprises.

Foreign Trade

Foreign trade has experienced spectacular growth. The Spanish trade balance remains in deficit, meaning imports exceed exports,... Continue reading "Spain's Service Sector: Trade, Transport, Tourism" »

Key Factors of the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions

1. Agriculture

• Three-year rotation systems: Cereals, legumes, and forages.
• New crops: Most importantly, potatoes.
• Mechanization: Led many to refer to an "agricultural revolution." Harvesters and tractors replaced animals, increasing productivity.
• Use of fertilizers: Fertilizers supplemented special nutrients.
• Livestock: One of the biggest changes. The previous clash between agriculture and livestock disappeared with the Industrial Revolution; they became complementary. New products emerged: milk, meat, cheese, etc.

2. Industry

Industry incorporated technological innovations that increased productivity. Spillovers occurred; the textile sector influenced metallurgy and steel (feedback).

• Capital:

The Reign of the Catholic Monarchs

Domestic Policy of the Catholic Monarchs

Dynastic Union: Castile and Aragon

The Catholic Monarchs achieved the territorial unification of the Iberian Peninsula, with the exception of Portugal. Through the marriage of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, the two kingdoms were united under the same monarchs. However, each kingdom maintained its own distinct institutions, laws, currencies, and languages.

Administrative Reforms and Royal Power

The monarchs implemented several reforms to centralize power and improve governance:

• Royal Council (Consejo Real): Strengthened as the primary advisory and governmental body, diminishing the political role of the Cortes (parliamentary assemblies).
• Permanent Army: Establishment

Advances in Commercial Agriculture

From the second half of the nineteenth century, commercial agriculture gradually became prominent on the Mediterranean coast, focusing on both domestic and export markets. The cultivation of vines, citrus fruits, rice, and sugar cane was widespread, alongside other products like ECS fruits, olive oil, and esparto grass. Notably, vineyards, a traditional crop, experienced significant expansion due to increased demand for wine derivatives. Between 1850 and 1875, Spain tripled its wine exports to Europe, largely because of the devastating phylloxera plague that ruined French vineyards around 1863. Consequently, Spain became the world's leading wine producer between 1870 and 1880. However, traditional cereal cultivation... Continue reading "Transformation of Spanish Agriculture and Industry in the 19th Century" »