Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Habitat Destruction and Its Far-Reaching Effects

Extinction is a natural process which is part of evolution. Today, there is a huge increase in the rate of extinction as a result of human actions. One simple alteration in an ecosystem can trigger a chain reaction that runs through the whole system. The great increase in human population has been at the expense of other species.

Deforestation Impacts

Deforestation: Forests contain useful food and raw material resources. They are an important part of the water cycle.

Loss of Wetlands

Loss of wetlands: Wetlands absorb and store carbon, maintain water quality, and encourage plant growth.

Increased Flooding Risks

Increased flooding risks are a direct consequence of habitat degradation.

Strategies for Environmental

Ancien Régime: Society and Governance

The Ancien Régime (Old Regime) was the expression used to describe the social, political, and economic structures that prevailed in Europe until the liberal revolutions of the late eighteenth century. It designates the set of rules governing social structures, forms of government, and property ownership.

Social Structure of the Ancien Régime

The society of the Ancien Régime was structured into three estates:

• The Clergy: The religious establishment.
• The Nobility: The privileged classes.
• The Common People (Third Estate): The rest of the population, including lower classes and workers.

Demographics and Political System

The demographic regime of this era was characterized by a high birth rate but also a high mortality... Continue reading "Europe's Transformation: Ancien Régime, Enlightenment, and Absolute Rule" »

Visigoths in Hispania

The Visigoths in Hispania were a Germanic tribe from eastern Europe. In 410, they invaded Rome under their leader Alaric. Nevertheless, they became allies of the Romans. They established a kingdom in the Roman province of Gaul, with the capital at Toulouse.

Next, the Visigoths attacked and defeated the Germanic tribes in the Iberian Peninsula: the Vandals, the Alans, and the Suevi. This gave them control of the Iberian Peninsula. In 507, the Franks forced them out of Gaul.

The Muslim Conquest of Hispania

The Muslim invasion of Hispania began in 711. The Umayyad general Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar with a small army. At the Battle of Guadalete, together Tariq and Musa conquered most of Hispania.

Al-Andalus:

7am: time to get up; 7:09: breakfast time; 8:01: off 2 school, off 2 work; 8:30: the eggs were schriveled and the toast was like stone; 9:15: time to clean; 10: the sun rise; 10:15: the garden sprinklers whirled up in golden founts; 12noon: the house lets the dog in; 2pm: the regiments of mice hummed; 2:15: the dog was gone; 2:35: bridge tables sprouted from patio walls; 4: the tables folded; 4:30: the nursery walls glowed; 5: the bath filled with clear hot water; 6-8: the dinner dishes manipulated like magic tricks; 9: the beds warmed their hidden circuits; 9:05: the house plays the poem "twcsr"; 10: the house began to die

The Second Industrial Revolution: A New Era

The late 19th century marked a period of profound transformation, often referred to as the Second Industrial Revolution. This era brought significant advancements that reshaped economies and societies across the globe.

Timeline and Global Impact

• When: Primarily by the end of the 19th century.
• Where: Its influence spread across Europe, Japan, and North America.
• What Happened: New industrial changes dramatically improved Western economies and global production capabilities.

Key Innovations and Changes

This period was characterized by several groundbreaking developments:

• New Energy Sources: A shift from coal and steam to more efficient sources like oil and electric energy.
• Highly Developed Industrial Sectors:

Oceania

Oceania is made up of Australia, New Zealand, and many small Pacific Islands. Australia is by far the largest landmass in the continent.

Australia

Capital: Canberra (although the largest city is Sydney).
Divided into eight states.
Population: 21.2 million people.
Population density: 2.6 people per km².
80% of the population lives on the coast.
95% of the population lives in urban areas (towns/cities).

Australia's Climate

Factors that affect climate:

• Latitude: As you move away from the Equator, temperatures fall.
• Distance from the sea: The sea moderates the temperatures of places near the coast (e.g., the sea cools coastal places in summer and warms coastal places in winter).
• Ocean currents: Either warm (from the equator) or cold (from the poles)

FROM CHIEF TECUMSEH, ADDRESS TO GENERAL WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON (1810)

During the nineteenth Century, there was increasing expansion west.

The American Frontier

The West was characterized by Jefferson’s grid systems.

The demographic character of the frontier society was that it was made up of all classes from all regions and of all ethnic groups. What they had in common was that they were all young.

Migration Patterns

• Northern farmers moved first to Vermont and western areas of New York, then into the Upper Northwest Territory to the border of the Great Plains.
• Southern planters migrated to Kentucky and Tennessee, which for them was the new land of milk and honey.

The migration has been described as a bit-by-bit process and not some great wave.

Usually,... Continue reading "Westward Expansion and Frontier Society in 19th Century America" »

Angling and Recreational Fishing Practices

Angling involves using a hook with a wide range of baits or lures, such as artificial flies, to catch fish. This practice sometimes requires fish to be returned to the water, a method known as catch and release. Recreational or sport fishermen often log their catches or participate in fishing competitions.

The Global Fishing Industry

The fishing industry encompasses any activity related to taking, culturing, processing, preserving, storing, transporting, marketing, or selling fish and fish products. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines it as including recreational, subsistence, and commercial fishing, along with the harvesting, processing, and marketing sectors. Commercial activities within... Continue reading "Fishing Practices: Angling, Commercial, and Aquaculture" »

Oil: 40% of Global Energy Consumption

Oil represents 40% of global energy consumption. It is found underground and extracted via wells. The oil refining process transforms it from a raw ore into various products, including plastics, gasoline, solvents, waxes, glues, tar, and asphalt.

Major Oil Reserves and Consumption

The largest reserves are in the Middle East, with other significant areas including Mexico, the USA, Venezuela, Nigeria, the Gulf of Guinea, Angola, Norway, Britain, Russia, Europe, and Japan. Consumption is highest in industrialized countries, particularly the USA and Canada. The U.S. oil industry was the first to develop, and during the 1929 stock market crash, the U.S. provided 70% of the world's oil. Other areas in Africa and... Continue reading "Fossil Fuels: Oil, Coal, and Natural Gas" »

Spanish Exploration and Settlement

Most Europeans saw the Americas as virgin land ripe for exploitation by settlers, and their mission to civilize the indigenous peoples and put them to work.

The Columbian Exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and human societies - including ideas about religion, time, and land ownership and use - had far-reaching effects.

1 Christopher Columbus

The discoverer of America: Columbus Day is celebrated as an official holiday in most states on the second Monday of October, commemorating his landing on San Salvador (Bahamas) on 12 October 1492, although he never set foot on U.S. territory and Viking sailors had visited Newfoundland 500 years before.

Many Native Americans regard Columbus and other European explorers and... Continue reading "European Exploration and Settlement of the Americas" »