Notes, abstracts, papers, exams and problems of Geography

The Formation of the Christian Kingdoms

The Pyrenean counties: Charlemagne, aiming to protect his empire from the Muslims, established a frontier zone known as the Marca Hispanica. This region was divided into counties, governed by counts who were answerable to the emperor. At the beginning of the 9th century, Navarrese and Aragonese counts from Jaca declared their independence. The Hispano-Visigoths established the County of Aragon around 817, and the Kingdom of Pamplona was also founded. Borrell II refused to renew the oath of allegiance to the Frankish king, leading to the effective independence of the Catalan counties.

Consolidation of the Kingdoms

Ferdinand I united the kingdoms of León and Castile. However, upon his death in 1065, they... Continue reading "Medieval Spain: Christian Kingdoms' Rise and Fall (9th-15th Centuries)" »

State Intervention and Industrialization

Outside Britain, industrialization was encouraged by state intervention through protectionist economic policies. These policies imposed tariffs and customs duties, which made importation and exportation more difficult. The state carried out activities to promote railways, creating appropriate legislation to encourage mergers.

Transformation in Financing Companies

British industrialization developed thanks to entrepreneurs who invested in their businesses. However, in Europe and the USA, financing methods included:

• Banks investing in companies.
• The company limited by shares.
• Mergers, trusts, and cartels.

Trusts and Cartels

Trusts and cartels are business alliances that prevent competition and reap benefits by... Continue reading "Industrialization Beyond Britain: State, Finance, and Management" »

Energy Use in Trophic Levels

At each level, a portion of the energy is used for growth, some for metabolic processes, and some is lost through respiration as heat and is not reused.

Energy Transfer to Higher Levels

The energy that accumulates in organic matter can pass to the next trophic level. Therefore, the amount of energy that passes from one trophic level to the next diminishes.

Ecosystem Balance: An Ideal State?

For an ecosystem to be balanced:

• Environmental factors must be stable.
• The number of individuals must be relatively constant.
• External factors should not drastically change the ecosystem.

The balance in an ecosystem is an ideal state!

Early vs. Mature Ecosystems

Early Stage:

• Low species diversity and structural complexity.
• Low biomass.
• Low

Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems

On Earth, there are terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Both share the following characteristics:

• Solar energy is essential for the development of life.
• They have the same trophic levels: producers, consumers, and decomposers.
• Matter and energy flow continuously.
• Living creatures adapt to their environment.

Differences Between Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems

• In aquatic environments, nutrients and gases are dissolved in water.
• Temperature changes are minimal in aquatic environments.
• Light is a limiting factor for production in aquatic environments because there is little light below 100 meters in depth.
• Pressure has a greater effect in aquatic environments.

Formation of Terrestrial Ecosystems

Ecological succession refers... Continue reading "Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems: Formation, Biomes, and Biodiversity" »

Domestic and Foreign Trade

1.1 Characteristics and Transformations

Internal trade, involving over three million people, has undergone profound changes in supply and demand, often described as a "commercial revolution."

a) Changes in Demand

Increased purchasing power due to higher family incomes, diversification of clientele, dispersion of consumers, and declining purchase frequency, driven by the pace of modern life, have all impacted demand.

b) Changes in Commerce

The increasing diversification of products to reach more consumers, the spread of new distribution methods, and the utilization of new technologies that improve commercial equipment and facilitate payment have transformed commerce.

1.2 Types of Domestic Trade

1.2.1 Wholesale Trade

Wholesalers... Continue reading "Domestic and Foreign Trade: Characteristics, Types, and Policies" »

The Context of the Romanesque

In the ninth century, a new state, Asturias, began to consolidate, developing a new art form distinct from the Carolingian world to the northeast and the Islamic influence to the south. This accumulation of artistic experiences across space and time often falls under a generic label.

Related Topics:

• Arts
• Art History

Somalia

Somalia's economy relies heavily on livestock such as goats, sheep, and camels. Industries are limited, including food processing, cement factories, and an oil refinery. A brief overview of its history:

• 14th Century: An Islamic state was founded.
• 17th Century: The country fragmented into small tribes.
• 19th Century: British colonization began in 1884.

Millions of Somalis struggle for survival in this... Continue reading "Exploring the History and Geography of the Islamic World" »

Growth of Peripheral Neighborhoods

New neighborhoods emerging on the outskirts of cities often lack essential infrastructure like sanitation, electricity, and water. These rapidly developing areas, sometimes illegally established, are known as barrios de autoconstrucción. Neighborhood associations formed to demand improvements, gradually transforming these settlements into towns and, eventually, contributing to the expansion of metropolitan areas.

The Rise of the Automobile

The rapid urban growth necessitated faster transportation, leading to the car's prominence. This unplanned expansion continued until the end of the 1970s.

The Post-Industrial City

Post-industrial Spain is marked by the dominance of Madrid and Barcelona, two extensive metropolitan... Continue reading "Evolution of Spanish Cities: From Periphery to Global Hubs" »

Population Distribution: Influencing Factors

Physical Factors

Weather patterns, elevation, land relief, soil fertility, aridity, humidity, and land accessibility all influence population distribution.

Historical Factors

Historically, populations have concentrated near rivers due to fertile land and access to resources.

Economic Factors

Population tends to concentrate where resources are abundant, such as productive land, water sources, and established businesses.

Evolution of Population in Rich Countries

Long Phase of Demographic Stability

• Families typically had an average of 5 children, but many died young.
• Unsafe crops, hunger, epidemics, and wars were prevalent.

Phase of Population Increase (Demographic Revolution)

• The disappearance of famines due to

The Revolution of Transportation

Navigation:

1. Warships with steam engines (Fulton)
2. Iron vessels and propeller propulsion
3. Refrigeration
4. New infrastructure such as the Suez Canal (1869)

Railways:

Stephenson: 1830 - 1st steam locomotive passenger line between Liverpool and Manchester.

Implications:

1. Specialization in the global economy
2. Growth of trade
3. Diversification of diet
4. Facilitation of national and international migration
5. Integration and broader knowledge of the world

New Energy and Industry

1. New energy sources: electricity and oil
2. Key sectors: Steel, electricity, and chemicals
3. New transportation: automobile and aircraft
4. United States and Germany as new industrial powers

New Business Practices

1. New business structures: creation of the SA (Société Anonyme) and