Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Afghanistan: Kabul / Armenia: Yerevan / Azerbaijan: Baku / Bahrain: Manama / Bangladesh: Dhaka / Bhutan: Thimphu / Brunei: Bandar Seri Begawan / Cambodia: Phnom Penh / China: Beijing / Cyprus: Nicosia / Georgia: Tbilisi / India: New Delhi / Indonesia: Jakarta / Iran: Tehran / Iraq: Baghdad / Israel: Jerusalem / Japan: Tokyo / Jordan: Amman / Kazakhstan: Nur-Sultan / Kuwait: Kuwait City / Kyrgyzstan: Bishkek / Laos: Vientiane / Lebanon: Beirut / Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur / Maldives: Male / Mongolia: Ulaanbaatar / Myanmar: Naypyidaw / Nepal: Kathmandu / North Korea: Pyongyang / Oman: Muscat / Pakistan: Islamabad / Palestine: Jerusalem (East) / Philippines: Manila / Qatar: Doha / Russia: Moscow / Saudi Arabia: Riyadh / Singapore: Singapore / South

Agrarian Space

It is the land where agrarian activities are undertaken.

Rural Space

It refers to the non-urban areas that are used for agrarian activities, amongst many other activities.

Agriculture

It is concerned with cultivating the soil and growing crops to obtain food and raw materials. It includes the preparation of plant products for people to use and their distribution to markets.

Livestock Farming

It is concerned with domesticated animals raised in an agricultural setting to produce commodities such as food, raw materials, and labor. It implies a commercial purpose, since animals are reared for financial gain.

Silviculture

It is concerned with the economic use of woodland. It provides food and raw materials for various industries.

Fishing

It... Continue reading "Agrarian and Rural Spaces: Activities, Factors, and Economies" »

Dictatorships and Authoritarian Regimes

In a Dictatorship, all power is concentrated in the hands of a single person or a small group. These regimes often seize control through a revolution, severely limiting the participation of the majority of the population in their own governance.

• Lack of Rights: The government typically does not recognize fundamental human rights and only follows laws created by the dictator.
• False Democracies: These are systems where elections are manipulated, or participation is restricted to only one or two political parties, giving the illusion of democracy.

Monarchies

Monarchies are states where the Head of State is a king or a queen.

• Constitutional Monarchy: Monarchs participate in the government, but their powers are

Factors Leading to the Great Geographical Discoveries

One of the most significant historical events of the 15th and 16th centuries was the discovery of territories previously unknown to Europeans through maritime exploration. Several historical factors in Europe provided the motivation to explore:

Economic Factors Driving Exploration

• Gold and silver were needed for coinage.
• Europe was highly dependent on luxury products like spices and silk imported from Asia.
• The traditional trade route was blocked when Constantinople (formerly Byzantium) was taken by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, necessitating the search for alternative maritime routes.

Demographic Factors

Following the population crisis of the Late Middle Ages, the population grew, leading to a higher... Continue reading "The Roots of Global Maritime Discovery (15th & 16th Centuries)" »

Local Government: Key Concepts and Structures

Statutory Law

Laws passed by legislatures.

Common Law

Legal traditions developed through court cases going back to England.

Judicial Federalism

State courts' authority to interpret their own states' constitutional guarantees to expand upon those in the U.S. Constitution.

Judicial Activism

The making of new laws through judicial interpretation of laws and constitutions.

Judicial Restraint

Self-imposed limits on courts to defer to legislative intent or to previous court decisions.

Service Function

Supplying goods and services not sufficiently supplied by private entities; a purpose of local governments.

Political Function

Managing conflict over public policy; a purpose of local governments.

General Purpose Government

A... Continue reading "Understanding Local Government: Key Concepts and Structures" »

Understanding Global Population Dynamics

High Population

Megacities: Urban Hubs and Global Influence

A megacity is an urban settlement characterized by a very high population density and large size. These cities also play a crucial role in the international political and economic landscape.

Key Characteristics of Megacities

• High population density
• Often located in coastal areas, facilitating trade
• Heavy influence on culture
• Fluid transportation between areas

Challenges Faced by Megacities

Traffic Congestion and Infrastructure

Employment Opportunities

Population and Society

Demography is the study of population. It examines a population’s volume and the causes for its growth or decrease. This field is ruled by three primary factors: birth, death, and migrations.

The elements that influence these three factors are usually social and cultural in nature, which is why demography is considered a branch of sociology.

The Importance of Statistics

Statistics have great importance in the study of population. Nevertheless, statistics do not always reflect 100% real data, and this must be taken into account when studying the information.

Basic Demographic Concepts

• Birth rate: The number of annual births per 1,000 inhabitants.
• Fertility rate: The average number of births per 1,000 women of childbearing age.

Global Economy

International business is transforming the world as never before. The decades following the establishment of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) in 1947 witnessed unprecedented growth in international trade and investment. Companies focused more and more on the mass production of products and services to meet insatiable world demand. Since the 1980s, emerging markets provided new impetus to worldwide economic interconnectedness. These fast-growth developing economies—some two dozen countries including Brazil, India, China, and Poland—are experiencing substantial market liberalization, privatization, and industrialization, which are fueling global economic transformation. These emerging markets, located on every... Continue reading "The Impact of International Business on the Global Economy" »

Industrialization in the Basque Country

Bizkaia's Industrial Development

1. Beginning of Industrialization: Second half of the 19^th century.
2. Location: Barakaldo and Sestao, on the left bank of the Nerbioi Estuary, and in Bilbao itself.
3. Primary Industries: Iron and steel.
4. Other Industries: Shipbuilding, hydroelectrics, paper mills, textiles, fish canning.
5. Industry Size: Large-sized companies.
6. Advantages: Proximity to a port, high-quality local iron ore, and the existence of a traditional merchant class.
7. Investment Sources: Local and foreign investment (British, Belgian, French).
8. Financial Groups: Commercial banks (e.g., Banco de Bilbao), business corporations, the Bilbao Stock Exchange.
9. Worker Origins: Immigrants from different provinces of Spain.
10. Important