Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Key Demographic Indicators and Definitions

Understanding population changes requires defining core indicators:

• CBR (Crude Birth Rate): The number of births per population in a specific period.
• CDR (Crude Death Rate): The number of deaths per population in a specific period.
• TFR (Total Fertility Rate): An estimate of the average number of children a woman has during her lifetime.
• RNI (Rate of Natural Increase): The measurement of the difference between births and deaths.
• PD (Population Density): The ratio between the number of people and the size of the area they occupy.

Global Population Dynamics and Trends

Current and Projected World Population

Today, the world's population is approximately 7,000 million (7 billion) and is estimated to reach 9,000... Continue reading "Analyzing World Population Trends and Spain's Demographic Shift" »

Rise of Nazi Regime

The consolidation of Nazis in power began with the Reichstag fire on February 27, 1933. They accused communists and persecuted them, making all other political parties illegal. Hitler eliminated potential rivals in the Night of Long Knives in June 1934, assassinating SA members. After Hindenburg's death, Hitler became president and held all top positions, starting his dictatorship. He introduced anti-Semitic policies, banning Jews from professions in 1933, marriages in 1935, and leading to the Night of Broken Glass in 1938.

Nazi Economy

The Nazis established the 'Beauty of Work' propaganda initiative, abolished trade unions, and banned strikes. They attempted autarchy but focused on public works, military rearmament, and heavy... Continue reading "Rise of Nazi Regime and USSR Economic Policies" »

UNIT 2

Pollution: contamination of the soil, water or air / the process of polluting the air, water… especially by means of poisonous chemicals. 
Environment: the natural world around us. Medioambiente
(to be) green: to be eco-friendly / concerned with protecting the natural world.
Waste: material which has been used and is no longer wanted / used too much.
Reuse: use again. Reutilizar
Recycle: process things that have already been used so they can be used again.
Rubbish  bin: a container for unwanted things or waste material, such as used paper, empty bins and bottles… Papelera
Bottle bank: a container for used glass that you want to recycle. Contenedor de Botellas
Throw away: get rid of / discard something that you don’t want by putting it... Continue reading "Pollution and Environmental Issues: A Glossary of Terms" »

Population Dynamics

Natural Population Change

Natural population change refers to increases and decreases in population produced by biological factors.

Migration

Migration involves a change of residence and job. It can be internal or external.

Population Structure

Population structure is the classification of population based on different criteria.

Population Density

Population density is the relation between the population and the size of the area it occupies.

Natality

Natality is the number of births that take place in a population over a year.

Mortality

Mortality is the number of deaths that take place in a population over a year.

Natural Increase

Natural increase is the number of births minus the number of deaths.

Emigration

Emigration is people leaving... Continue reading "Population Dynamics and Settlements: A Comprehensive Study" »

Sustainable Agriculture and Global Challenges

An alternative approach involves applying fertilizers precisely to specific areas of a field where demand is high, often combined with drip irrigation to deliver water directly to plant roots. While this method can be expensive, it is highly efficient in controlling and reducing the amount of water and fertilizers used in agricultural fields.

Why Malnutrition Persists Globally

• Poverty: Many cannot afford nutritious food.
• Food Shortages: Periods like "hungry seasons" before harvests force families to travel far for food.
• Climate Change: Leading to droughts and floods that disrupt food production.
• Food Waste: Significant amounts of edible food are lost or discarded.
• National Economies: Economic instability

City Centers

The activities of a city's inhabitants influence the way a city is organized. Although these activities are often found all over the city, many of them are concentrated in the distinctive place known as the city center. The city center has its own character and is a reference point for its citizens and for visitors. The city centers of many cities, particularly European cities, have historic and emblematic buildings, as well as the headquarters of companies and public administration bodies (councils, ministries, etc.). City centers also host shopping areas and entertainment centers. North American city centers contain the CBD (Central Business District), which features a landscape of skyscrapers and tertiary sector activities. The... Continue reading "City Centers and Urban Hierarchy: A Comparative Analysis" »

Feudalism: The Foundation of Medieval Europe

Feudalism emerged as the dominant system of social, political, and economic organization in Medieval Europe.

Political System

The political landscape was shaped by the disintegration of the Roman Empire and the decline of public law following the invasions. Large landowners assumed functions previously reserved for the state, such as coinage, tax collection, justice, and defense. After the invasions, new kingdoms organized according to the feudal scheme, forming patrimonial monarchies where the king was considered primus inter pares (first among equals). Within each territory, powerful lords exercised strict control over public administration.

Social System

Feudal law, characterized by concepts of entrustment,... Continue reading "Early Medieval Society: Feudalism, Demography, and Economy" »

Natural Resource Mining & Exploitation

The exploitation of natural resources involves various technologies, costs, and often unprofitable markets.

Types of Mining Activity

• Surface Mining: Includes mines and quarries.
• Underground Mining: Extraction from beneath the Earth's surface.
• Underwater Mining: Utilizes dredgers for resource recovery.
• Drilling Wells: For liquid and gaseous resources.

Modern Mining Challenges

Today's mining activities face significant problems, including environmental degradation, excessive resource extraction, and social conflicts.

Energy Sources: History & Classification

Evolution of Energy Use

The history of energy consumption has progressed through various stages:

• Coal: A foundational energy source.
• Electricity, Oil, and

Animal Farm by George Orwell (1945)

The passage I will analyze is from the fictional novel Animal Farm, written by George Orwell in 1945. This novel represents the totalitarian regime used by the Soviet Union in the 1920s, where socialist ideas of equality were manipulated to maintain power. It is an allegory of the Russian Revolution and the Communist Soviet Union; consequently, many of the animals in the novel can be directly linked to important figures and institutions of the Soviet Union. Orwell uses this allegorical form to express his opinions about the events and people involved in this period of history.

Key Literary Elements

Themes

• Totalitarianism
• Revolution
• Class Warfare
• Language as Power
• The Soviet Union

Symbols

• The Commandments
• Character Names
• The

Demography in Public Health and Medicine: Global Population Issues

Defining Demography

Demography is the statistical study of human populations based on: size, density, distribution, and vital statistics.

Importance and Application of Demographic Data

Demographic data provides essential information used for:

• Health service planning and health care provision.
• Scientific and medical research.
• Analysis of health status and population state.

Populations change through three fundamental processes:

• Fertility (births)
• Mortality (deaths)
• Migration (movement)

Methods of Data Collection

Demographic data is collected using both direct and indirect methods.

• Direct Methods:

  Data comes from vital statistics registries that track all births and deaths, as well as certain