Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Key Figures of the Age of Exploration

Hernán Cortés: Spanish explorer who landed on the coast of Mexico in 1519. In 1521, he and his Indian allies captured and demolished Tenochtitlan.

Malinche: A young Indian woman who served as Cortés's translator and adviser. The Spanish called her Doña Malinche.

Moctezuma: Aztec emperor who drove the Spanish from Tenochtitlan. He was killed in the fighting.

Francisco Pizarro: Spanish explorer who captured and killed Atahualpa.

Atahualpa: Incan ruler who won the throne from his brother in a bloody civil war.

Colonial Administration and Society

Council of the Indies: Established to pass laws and maintain strict control over the colonies.

Encomienda: The right to demand labor or tribute from Native Americans in... Continue reading "Key Figures and Concepts of the Age of Exploration and Enlightenment" »

The Birth of the Modern World

Tense International Relations

The late 19th and early 20th centuries were marked by tense international relations. Industrialized countries focused on large-scale production, fueled by colonization and a growing consumer society. This led to inequalities and economic crises, causing a decline in the influence of realism in international politics.

Political Tensions in Europe

While armed conflicts were avoided within Europe, there was a significant increase in the production of arms and military equipment. Germany's foreign policy under Bismarck focused on alliances with Austria, Russia, and Italy, leading to the annexation of Alsace and Lorraine. Wilhelm II's dismissal of Bismarck and subsequent expansionist policies... Continue reading "The Second Industrial Revolution and the Rise of Imperialism" »

The Protestant Reformation: Origins and Division

The Reformation was a religious movement which began in the first half of the 16th century. It instigated the division of the Christian Church and the founding of Protestant churches.

Causes of the Reformation

The primary causes of the Reformation were:

• The low clergy's lack of training.
• The bad example set by the high clergy.
• The Church's immense wealth.
• The buying and selling of ecclesiastical positions (simony).
• The sale of indulgences.

Key Figures of the Movement

• Martin Luther: The German priest was scandalized by the amount of corruption in the Church. He published the famous “95 Theses” in 1517, challenging papal authority.
• Ulrich Zwingli: A Swiss pastor who founded the Reformed Church in the

Geographical Vocabulary: Water, Land, and Urban Areas

Water and Sea Terms

• Beach
• Coast (Note: Original had 'cost', corrected to 'coast')
• Coastline
• Glacier
• Coral Reef
• Tide (Portuguese: maré)
• Source (Portuguese: fonte)
• Wave (Portuguese: onda)

Land, Hills, and Mountains

• Desert
• Vegetation
• Peak (Portuguese: pico)
• Plateau (Portuguese: planalto)
• Reef
• Cliff
• Ridge (Portuguese: cume)

Agriculture and Rural Land

• Vegetation
• Fertile
• Irrigation
• Land
• Trees
• Seeds

Towns and Cities

• Pollution
• Conurbation
• Industrialized (Corrected spelling)
• Congestion
• Underdeveloped (Portuguese: em desenvolvimento)
• Urban Sprawl (Portuguese: expansão urbana)
• Densely-populated (Corrected spelling and hyphenation)

English Grammar: Understanding Conditional Sentences

Conditional sentences, or If-Clauses, are used... Continue reading "Essential English Vocabulary and Conditional Sentences" »

Dividing the World

Globalization's Influence

Globalization has extended the culture and way of life of the USA and some European countries to the rest of the world.

The world today can be divided into two main parts: central areas and peripheral areas.

Global Cities

Global cities (New York, London, Tokyo, Paris, Berlin) are the main decision-making centers where multinational companies, large banks, and important international organizations are located.

Support for Globalization

Supporters of globalization include international organizations like the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the G8, and the G20. They use the following arguments:

• Globalization promotes the exchange of goods, services, capital, and people.

Causes of the Industrial Revolution

The year 1750 marked the beginning of a profound process of industrialization in Great Britain, a transformation that continued throughout the 19th century. This era saw significant technological advances that reshaped the economy, as industry expanded and traditional agriculture became less dominant.

Several key factors contributed to the onset of the Industrial Revolution:

• Improved Living Conditions: In the 18th century, advancements in hygiene, nutrition, and medicine led to improved living conditions. This resulted in significant population growth, which in turn increased demand for food and other goods, while also providing a large workforce for emerging industries.
• Agricultural Revolution: The enclosure

Impact of Relief on Population Distribution

Relief is one of the most significant factors influencing the distribution of the human population. Generally, the population density varies greatly with topography:

• Mountains: These areas are typically thinly populated.
• Plains: These areas are usually thickly populated.
• Plateaus: These areas are often moderately populated.

Reasons for Population Variations

Mountains and Hilly Areas

These regions are less populated because of limited means of livelihood. Agriculture is often poorly developed, and transportation facilities are limited. For example, the northeastern states of India have a lower population density due to their hilly and mountainous relief.

Plains

On the other hand, plains are densely populated... Continue reading "Factors in Population Distribution and Growth" »

Rise of the Living Standards

• Assembly-line construction techniques applied to houses or “little boxes”.
• Increase in car ownership.
• The 1956 Interstate Highways Act → new roads.
• Existence of long-term low-interest mortgages (Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944).

Racial factors: The “white flight,” e.g., Levittown (racial housing discrimination, redlining, and Mortgage discrimination)

Levittown: The Imperfect Rise of the American Suburbs

By Crystal Galyean --  In 1947, entrepreneur Abraham Levitt and his two sons, William and Alfred, broke ground on a planned community located in Nassau County, Long Island. Within a few years, the Levitts had transformed the former farmland into a suburban community housing thousands of men— many of whom... Continue reading "The Rise of Suburbia in the 1950s: Levittown and the American Dream" »

Did All Americans Benefit from the Boom?

Farmers and workers in many other industries, such as coal, leather, and textiles, did not benefit much.

• Coal suffered from competition from oil and electricity companies.
• Leather and textiles faced domestic competition.
• Industries struggled to compete with cheap labor in the South.
• Growth of industries, but no new jobs (machinery doubled production).

42% of Americans lived below the poverty line. Millions of unemployed people didn't share in the boom. It was a consumer-led boom, driven by ordinary families buying things for their homes, so demand began to tail off.

Chicago in the 1920s

Chicago was one of America's biggest cities.

It was a center of the steel, meat, and clothing industries that involved unskilled... Continue reading "American Economic Boom of the 1920s: Benefits and Contrasts" »

The Industrial Revolution: A Transformative Era

The Industrial Revolution began in England and spread to the rest of Western Europe and the United States. This profound period was driven by advancements not only in technology but also in medicine and science. These advancements—technology, medicine, and science—fundamentally altered the lives of people living in the new industrial cities.

Origins in England: Why It Started There

It commenced in England around 1750 for several key reasons:

• By this year, England was a wealthy nation compared to others.
• England possessed a stable government.
• The nation was rich in natural resources such as iron, coal, and rivers.
• It benefited from products originated in its colonies.
• There was a huge enthusiasm for