Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Paleolithic Age

- The first and longest period in prehistory.

- It lasted from 4.2 million years to 10,000 BC. It is usually divided into:

• Lower Palaeolithic (4.2 million-200,000 BC)
• Middle Palaeolithic (200,000-35,000 BC)
• Upper Paleolithic (35,000-10,000 BC)

Life in the Paleolithic Age

- They were hunters and gatherers (they didn’t cultivate the land or keep animals). They hunted, fished and gathered.

- They were nomadic.

- They lived in caves in winter and in spring-summer in huts.

- They hunted in groups, for instance, skin, bones, fat…

- Tools from stone and bone, later more elaborate.

- Their groups were very small, twenty or thirty members.

Artistic representation

- Cave paintings: painting made on walls and ceilings of caves.

- The colours... Continue reading "Paleolithic, Neolithic, and Metal Ages: Life, Art, and Religion" »

The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial Revolution was the process through which technological advances led to dramatic economic changes. Agriculture became less important than industry, and industrial capitalism emerged. The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain in about 1750.

Causes of the Industrial Revolution

This was a long, slow process spanning nearly a century.

Population Growth

During the 18th century, living conditions improved across Europe.

The Agricultural Revolution

In the 18th century, European agricultural production increased, and crops became more varied:

• Extensive agricultural holdings
• Mechanization
• Fertilizers
• Crop rotation

Increased Trade

Foreign trade increased because the UK dominated trade routes in the Atlantic and Indian... Continue reading "Industrial Revolution: Economic Transformation & Social Change" »

Agrarian Landscapes

Agrarian Landscape

In Kansas (United States): flat relief, open fields, herbaceous crops, large estates, uniform plot shape.

In Normandy (France): medium-sized holdings, herbaceous crops, irregular plot shape, hedgerows.

In Guipuzcoa (País Vasco): smallholdings, herbaceous crops, meadows and forestry, mountainous relief, dispersed settlement, irregular plot shape.

In Granada (Andalucía): medium-sized holdings, herbaceous crops, irregular plot shape, hedgerows.

By plantation: plots are typically large, companies, usually foreign, impose one type of monoculture, with crops intended for export, settlement alternates between concentrated and dispersed.

By agriculture: plots are primarily large geometric estates, forming a uniform... Continue reading "Global Economic Activities: Agriculture, Commerce, and Impacts" »

Dividing the World

Globalization has extended the culture and way of life of the USA and some European countries to the rest of the world.

The world today can be divided into two main parts:

• Central areas
• Peripheral areas

Global cities (New York, London, Tokyo, Paris, Frankfurt) are the main decision-making centers for multinational companies, large banks, and important international organizations.

Support for Globalization

Arguments in favor of globalization:

• Globalization promotes the exchange of goods, services, capital, and people.
• This process benefits all countries and individuals.
• Globalization can bring people, countries, and cultures closer together.
• Globalization leads to greater cooperation.
• The transmission of data enriches the lives of individuals.

Economy and Society in the 17th Century

The 17th century is sometimes referred to as a period of general crisis in agriculture, economic growth, demography, and social conflict.

Economy

Agriculture

Rural areas suffered from low productivity, with the exception of England and the Low Countries, where new agricultural techniques were developed. Agriculture became less productive due to changes in climate and decreased demand for agricultural products.

Craft Production and Trade

• In southern Europe, craftsmanship was still regulated by guilds. However, the domestic system spread in northwest Europe. This way, cheaper products could be obtained more efficiently.
• Before the 17th century, Spain, Portugal, and Italy were the main economic powers. In this

French Revolution of 1789

The French Revolution (1789) was a complex process that ended the Ancien Régime and paved the way for a new liberal society and new ways of thinking and living.

Convocation of the Estates-General

King Louis XVI’s minister, Calonne, proposed that the nobility contribute to paying taxes. The nobility refused, leading to a serious political crisis and forcing Louis XVI to convene the Estates-General. This situation fueled widespread discontent, resulting in the creation of so-called Cahiers de doléances (notebooks of grievances). These notebooks highlighted the people’s discontent with the monarchy. Enlightened sectors of the bourgeoisie demanded equal representation in the Estates-General compared to the nobility... Continue reading "French Revolution of 1789: A Comprehensive Account" »

Population Growth and Demand

• European population experienced significant growth as the death rate declined.
• This demographic shift was primarily due to advancements in hygiene and improved nutrition, leading to better health and increased food availability.
• The burgeoning population fueled a greater demand for products, which in turn spurred significant agrarian and industrial transformations.

The Agricultural Revolution

Changes in Land Ownership: The Enclosure Acts

• The Enclosure Acts were pivotal laws that transformed land ownership by dividing communal and open fields into large, private estates.

Impact of Enclosure Acts:

• Beneficiaries: Large landowners significantly profited from these changes, consolidating vast tracts of land.
• Displaced: Small

The Transition to the Early Modern Period

Defining the Historical Periods

• The Early Modern Period began at the end of the Middle Ages, often marked by the discovery of America in 1492.
• The conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 is a significant marker, often cited as the end of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) Empire and a key transition point out of the Middle Ages.
• The Middle Ages is generally considered to have ended around 1453 or 1492, and the Early Modern Period concluded with the French Revolution in 1789.

Key Kingdoms and States

The political landscape included:

• Central European Powers: Holy Roman Empire, Kingdom of France, Kingdom of England, Kingdom of Sweden.
• Mediterranean and Eastern Powers: Ottoman Turks, Papal States, Duchies

Development of Trade and Capitalism

National and international trade grew as transport improved. Different regions specialized in different products.

Capitalism: Money was invested in industries to grow and produce more money for new investments.

1. Leads to more complex companies and societies; people invested capital, and others administered it.
2. Companies sold shares, and the stock exchange market developed.

Banks became increasingly important. They provided loans and invested capital. Financial operations became more complex, and banks and businesses began to use checks and letters of credit.

Spread of the Industrial Revolution

Britain's example was followed by other European countries (Belgium, France, Switzerland, Germany).

Consequences of the Industrial

What Was Feudalism?

Feudalism was the political, economic, and social system that existed in Western Europe between the 10th and 13th centuries.

How the Feudal System Worked

Feudalism was a system in which a free person became dependent on another, becoming their vassal.

The Lord-Vassal Commitment

The commitment between the vassal and the lord was sealed with an act of homage. In this act, the vassal swore fealty (loyalty) to his lord and promised to provide him with help and advice.

The Lord's Obligations and the Fief

In return, the lord swore to protect his vassal and provide him with a fief. A fief was normally land intended to provide the vassal with the resources needed to make a living.

Daily Life in the Fief

The fief was a rural estate composed... Continue reading "Feudalism in Western Europe: System, Society, and Daily Life" »