Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

The Crown of Aragón

Institution

The Crown of Aragón was made up of the Catalan counties and the kingdoms of Aragón, Valencia, and Mallorca. Each territory maintained its own laws, institutions, and customs. The king had less power than in Castile. Each territory had its own parliament, and the king needed its approval to raise taxes or pass laws. In Catalonia and Valencia, a Generalitat had an administrative role. An official called the Justícia defended people's rights in Aragón. City councils developed considerable autonomy in the Crown of Aragón. The city council of Barcelona was especially important.

Expansion Across the Mediterranean

Aragón expanded on the Iberian Peninsula, although less than Castile.

• Alfonso I conquered the Ebro Valley.

- Serf: A person who serves a lord and works in exchange for protection.

- Lord: A noble who provides protection and rules the land.

- Vassal: Lesser nobles/peasants who provide a service for protection.

- Arabs: The dominant social group who owned large states (latifundia).

- Berbers: They had converted to Islam and worked as livestock farmers, agricultural workers, or soldiers. They felt discriminated against.

- Muladíes: Natives of the peninsula who had converted to Islam. Most of them worked in agriculture.

- Mozarabs: Natives of the peninsula who had not converted to Islam and maintained their Christian beliefs.

- Bellatores: Those who wage war and defend the rest of society in times of war.

- Oratores: Those who pray and guarantee the salvation... Continue reading "Feudalism and Social Groups in Medieval Times" »

Norman Dynasties and Feudal Peace

What could people establish in several kingdoms? Norman dynasties (Vikings). Was there any agreement between lords to maintain peace? Yes, there was an agreement to maintain peace on the roads and limit the effects of wars between feudal lords.

Main Changes in Productivity

• New cultivation methods: such as triennial rotation.
• New farming tools: such as the mouldboard plough and the use of horses.
• The use of windmills and watermills, which made grinding grain easier.

Population Growth and Land

What was the reason for population growth? The increase in agricultural production meant an improvement in diet and health. How did they get land? Peasants resettled old abandoned land and cleared new land for farming.

Expansion

More Economically Developed Countries (MEDCs)

(Australia, France...)

• High life expectancy
• Exporting of manufactured goods
• Compulsory secondary education
• Low birth rate
• High status for women
• High employment in the tertiary sector
• High number of older people

Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs)

(India...)

• Poor healthcare
• Exporting of mainly primary products
• High infant mortality rate
• Low life expectancy
• Low literacy rates
• High employment rate in the primary sector
• High proportion of young people
• Limited access to clean water

Globalization: Different Aspects

Politics

• Global problems: Financial crises, climate change, terrorism
• Global actors: European Union, G-20, United Nations, Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

Economy

• Decrease in the cost of transporting

Chemical Plant Emissions and Violations

In Bahrain, chemical plants have been found to emit harmful pollutants into the atmosphere, violating environmental regulations.

Measures Implemented in Industries

To address air pollution, measures have been implemented in various industries, including:

• Reducing sulfur content in diesel fuel
• Recycling and converting carbon dioxide into useful products

Untreated Water Discharge

Chemical factories have also been inspected for discharging untreated water into the surrounding environment, violating environmental standards.

Waste Management Laws

Bahrain has enacted laws to manage hazardous waste, including:

• Management of hazardous healthcare waste
• Management of hazardous waste from factories and industries

Chemical Substances

The Industrial Revolution

Causes

• Population Growth: Living conditions improved due to advances in nutrition, hygiene, and medicine.
• Agricultural Improvements: Land increased agricultural production because it created larger farms. New machinery was introduced.
• Increased Trade: Great Britain's dominance of maritime trade led to transatlantic commerce.
• Technological Progress: New machinery was established in factories to produce goods more quickly.
• Financial Support From Agriculture And Trade: Agriculture and commercial activities provided capital that could be invested in industry.
• Favorable Political And Social Structure: The Bourgeoisie was allowed to promote measures that advanced its economic interest.

Key Elements for Industrialization

• Textile Industry:

Top Energy-Producing Countries in Africa

In Africa, there is a diverse range of energy sources and production capabilities. Several countries play a significant role in meeting the continent's energy needs and driving economic development:

• Natural Gas

  • Algeria

    Algeria is the largest producer of natural gas in Africa, exporting to Europe and other parts of Africa.

  • Nigeria

    Nigeria is the second-largest producer of natural gas in Africa, exporting to other parts of Africa and Europe.

  • Egypt

    Egypt is the third-largest producer of natural gas in Africa, exporting to Europe and other parts of Africa.

  • Libya

    Libya is the fourth-largest producer of natural gas in Africa, exporting to Europe and other parts of Africa.

  • Mozambique

    Mozambique is the fifth-largest producer

Feudal Society

1. The Three Estates

Feudal society was organized into three distinct social groups, known as the Three Estates. These groups were largely closed, making it difficult for individuals to change their social status.

Nobles: Bellatores

Nobility was determined by birth, and knights dedicated their lives to warfare. The nobility was further divided into two categories:

• High Nobility: This group held significant power and influence, shaping the decisions of the kingdom.
• Low and Middle Nobility: This group consisted of knights and lords with fewer possessions compared to the high nobility.

Nobles resided in castles and had the authority to assemble their own armies.

Feudal Castles

Castles served as residences for lords, their families, knights,... Continue reading "Feudal Society: The Three Estates & Feudal Economy" »

TYPE OF TEXT: Primary Source

As regards the form, it's a law - legal text/terms. For content - economic text.

AUTHOR

Liberal Progressive Government, at the proposal of the Ministry of Development + approved by Cortes + Isabel II (Queen)

ADDRESSEE

All the Spaniards, so it is a public text.

Introduction

OBJECTIVE

Attract foreign capital to boost the construction of the railway in Spain.

LOCATION + DATE

Aranjuez, published in “”/Located in the process of “Vicalvarada” to Progressive Biennium 1854-56

Main Idea

Boost the construction of the railway in Spain + the need to attract foreign capital.

Introduction

The law - approved in Cortes is ratified by Isabel II, Queen of Spain.

Articles

Their object is to regulate the general service of the rail network.... Continue reading "The 1855 Spanish Railway Law: Boosting Construction and Attracting Foreign Capital" »

The Consequences of the Revolution

1.3 The consequences of the revolution. The USSR. Lenin's government (1921-1924). Lenin held all the political power. In 1922, he created a political organization called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), made up of Russia and other Asian republics. It was organized as a federal state and adopted a New Economic Policy (NEP), which combined communist and capitalist policies. Thanks to this policy, the Soviet economy made a recovery.

• Stalin's government (1927-1953). Lenin's successor began a new era, called 'Stalinism'. A totalitarian political system was established which used state violence to purge society of his opponents. The economy became controlled by the state. Land was collectively owned... Continue reading "The Consequences of the Revolution and the Roaring Twenties" »