Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Hook

Hook: From the towering spires of Manhattan to the vibrant streets of Brooklyn, New York City embodies the energy and diversity of the world itself.

Context

Context: New York City has been the country's largest city since 1970. The center of the New York metropolitan area is one of the most populous agglomerations in the world. It is located on the eastern Atlantic coast of the country.

Definition: Global City Meaning

Def: One of the main global cities, which signifies that it is a city that serves as a primary node in the global economic network with: large population, multinational companies, globalized financial sectors, international transportation, high-quality research systems, and a world cultural output.

Documents

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Early Workers' Movements and Social Change

First Movements Against Working-Class Exploitation

• Luddites (1811): Destruction of machines as a form of protest.
• Workers' Associations (Early 19th Century): Provided aid in cases of unemployment and illness; demanded better working conditions.
• Trade Associations (1834): Demanded the right to unionize, higher wages, shorter workdays, and child labor legislation.
• Chartist Movement (1834-1848): Advocated for universal male suffrage, empowering workers to influence laws.
• Utopian Socialists (First Half of 19th Century): Sought to transform capitalist society through collectively owned communes.

Political Ideologies: Marxism and Anarchism

Marxism

• Based on historical materialism.
• Supports political parties as a means

Settler Societies and Racial Terms

• US & Canada: British colonized, predominantly white settler societies.
• Australia & New Zealand: Predominantly white settler societies.
• Argentina & Uruguay: Spanish colonized, predominantly white settler societies.
• Mestizo: "Mixed"; a racial category produced by Europeans and Indigenous peoples.
• Mulatto: Mixed Black and white.

Language Development and Contact

• Creole: A cultural process tracing back to Pidgins.
• Pidgin: A contact language formed when two groups who do not speak the same language come into contact. It mixes elements of both languages, often with the less powerful group providing basic words and the more powerful group providing larger/longer words.
• Lingua Franca: A language taken from one's

Ethical Considerations in Chocolate Production

Buying Chocolate Responsibly

What do you need to consider when buying a bar of chocolate?

Consider whether the chocolate is fair trade to support farmers and workers.

Challenges for Cocoa Farmers

What are some of the problems cocoa farmers face?

Fair trade helps farmers make a decent living, get fair prices for their cocoa, and have a more secure future.

Identifying Fair Trade Products

How can you identify fair trade products in the supermarket?

Look for the Fair Trade label on products.

Key Terms in Global Trade and Sustainability

• Olive Oil: Oil extracted from olives, used in cooking, cosmetics, and medicine.
• Gold: A precious yellow metal, valued for its beauty, rarity, and use in jewelry, electronics, and

A Relative Difference: Human vs. Chimpanzee

This similarity has been noted in the development of chimpanzees. With the cranium of opposing fossils this year, we can demonstrate that humans and chimpanzees are the surviving only ones of a great diversity of creatures similar to monkeys that lived more than five million years ago.

Key Distinctions

The most important difference has been the development of language in humans, which has had important consequences in our lifestyle. This includes:

• The need for direct questioning to elicit speech.
• The necessity of immediate action in certain situations.
• The inherent difficulty for us to perform certain tasks.
• Ongoing investigation by law enforcement regarding certain matters.

Amphibian Decline Crisis

The discovery... Continue reading "Human Evolution and Amphibian Crisis Insights" »

Administrative Structure of Slovakia

Slovakia is divided into an administrative structure comprising 8 self-governing regions.

NUTS Classification Levels

The Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS) defines the administrative hierarchy:

• NUTS 1: The Slovak Republic
• NUTS 2: 4 units – Bratislava Region, Western Slovakia, Central Slovakia, and Eastern Slovakia
• NUTS 3: 8 self-governing regions
• NUTS 4: 79 districts
• NUTS 5: 2,891 towns and villages

Regional Characteristics

The largest region by area is Banská Bystrica, while the smallest is Bratislava. The most populated region is Prešov, and the most densely populated is Bratislava. Conversely, the least populated region is Trnava, and the least densely populated is Banská Bystrica.

Demographics

Demographics & Urban Dynamics

• 🇯🇵 Japan – Ageing Population

  • Status: "Super-aged" society; $28.7\%$ aged $65+$ (Highest proportion globally).

  • Cause: TFR $\approx \mathbf{1.42}$ (below $2.1$ replacement) and high life expectancy.

  • Impacts: Labor shortages (economic strain), high spending on healthcare/pensions, rural depopulation.

  • Response: Pro-natalist policies (financial incentives), raising retirement age, promoting elderly workforce participation.

• 🇳🇬 Nigeria – Youthful Population

  • Status: Highly youthful; median age $\approx \mathbf{18.1}$. $58\%$ under 30.

  • Challenge: High Youth Unemployment and poverty; rapid growth strains education/healthcare.

  • Opportunity: Potential for Demographic Dividend if invested in.

  • Response: Prioritize investment

Economic & Social Transformations (12th-14th Century)

Agricultural Production & Population Growth

Why did agricultural production increase from the 12th century?

Several reasons contributed to the increase in agricultural production. The cultivated area was expanded by clearing forests, draining wetlands, and cultivating new land. In some regions, the three-field crop rotation was introduced, leaving only one-third of farmland fallow. New techniques also facilitated agricultural work, such as the heavy plough, irrigation, windmills, and watermills. This increased production led to more available food, reduced famines, and improved public health. Consequently, the death rate decreased, and the birth rate increased.

Trade Expansion &

Classification of Resources

a) Natural Resources

These are resources derived from nature without human intervention. They include:

• Biotic Resources: Resources obtained from living organisms.
  • Examples: Forests, animals, fish, crops.
• Abiotic Resources: Resources derived from non-living entities.
  • Examples: Minerals, soil, water, air.

b) Human-Made Resources

These are resources created or modified by human beings using natural resources.

• Examples: Buildings, machinery, vehicles, roads.

Classification Based on Renewability

a) Renewable Resources

• Can be replenished naturally over a short period.
• Examples: Solar energy, wind energy, water, forests, and crops.
• Features:
  • Regenerate naturally.
  • Sustainable if managed properly.
  • Often environment-friendly.

b) Non-Renewable