Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Economic & Social Transformations (12th-14th Century)

Agricultural Production & Population Growth

Why did agricultural production increase from the 12th century?

Several reasons contributed to the increase in agricultural production. The cultivated area was expanded by clearing forests, draining wetlands, and cultivating new land. In some regions, the three-field crop rotation was introduced, leaving only one-third of farmland fallow. New techniques also facilitated agricultural work, such as the heavy plough, irrigation, windmills, and watermills. This increased production led to more available food, reduced famines, and improved public health. Consequently, the death rate decreased, and the birth rate increased.

Trade Expansion &

Classification of Resources

a) Natural Resources

These are resources derived from nature without human intervention. They include:

• Biotic Resources: Resources obtained from living organisms.
  • Examples: Forests, animals, fish, crops.
• Abiotic Resources: Resources derived from non-living entities.
  • Examples: Minerals, soil, water, air.

b) Human-Made Resources

These are resources created or modified by human beings using natural resources.

• Examples: Buildings, machinery, vehicles, roads.

Classification Based on Renewability

a) Renewable Resources

• Can be replenished naturally over a short period.
• Examples: Solar energy, wind energy, water, forests, and crops.
• Features:
  • Regenerate naturally.
  • Sustainable if managed properly.
  • Often environment-friendly.

b) Non-Renewable

Key Definitions in Agricultural Science and Land Management

Greenhouse

A greenhouse is an enclosed area made of a metal structure covered with plastic or glass, used specifically for growing crops under controlled conditions.

Terrace

A terrace is a strip of land dug by farmers, made level and strengthened with walls. Terraces slope gently downwards so that excess water can drain to a lower terrace, preventing erosion.

Agrarian Holdings

An agrarian holding is a group of land areas or farms worked on by a person or company to produce agricultural, livestock, or forestry products.

Plots of Land

Agrarian holdings are formed by one or various pieces of land called plots.

Open-Field Landscapes

In open-field landscapes, plots of land are not enclosed by fences.... Continue reading "Essential Agricultural Terms and Farming Methods Defined" »

The Rise of the Bourgeoisie and Industrial Change

What changes led to the industrial and bourgeois revolution?

The development of businesses increased the wealth of the bourgeoisie, surpassing the traditionally wealthy nobility and clergy whose wealth was based on land ownership. This shift in economic power led to increased social and political influence for the bourgeoisie, despite their unequal treatment as members of the Third Estate.

What were the two new production systems?

• Domestic System: Organized by merchants who supplied artisans with raw materials, collected finished products, and managed their sale.
• Manufacturing: Large workshops employing numerous artisans to produce weapons and luxury items like glass.

Population Growth and Agricultural

1. Agricultural Production and Population Growth

• Expansion of farmland (deforestation, drainage of wetlands).
• Introduction of the three-field crop rotation system.
• Technological advancements: heavy plow, irrigation, windmills, watermills.
• More food → fewer famines → population growth → increased demand for goods → rise of craftsmanship and trade.

2. Growth of Trade and Finance

• Increased commercial transactions → emergence of banks and moneylenders.
• Money exchange houses due to different currencies.
• Use of written contracts and the rise of bills of exchange (14th century).

3. Guilds and the Apprenticeship System

Guilds: Associations of craftsmen in the same trade.

Advantages: Protected their members, regulated prices and quality.

Disadvantages:

Economic Systems of the World

Subsistence System

• Based on the primary sector, families produce what they consume in small quantities. If necessary, they sell or exchange goods on the local market.
• Prevalent before the Industrial Revolution.
• Today, it is only found in less developed societies due to limited access to technology.

Communist System

• The state controls the economy, owning companies and deciding production (what and quantity), prices, distribution of profits, etc.
• Previously common, it is now used in Cuba, Laos, North Korea, Vietnam, and China.
• The Chinese system is a hybrid between communism and capitalism.

Capitalist System

• Means of production are privately owned (technology, companies, machinery, etc.). The motivation to make a profit drives

Essential Demographic Concepts and Population Statistics

Census of Population Definition

The Census of Population is a count of the population of a country at a specific time. It collects demographic, economic, and social data on the population and housing characteristics. It is a state statistical operation that provides a snapshot of people at a given moment. Its information can only be published in numerical form, without individual references. In Spain, the census is typically conducted every ten years.

Understanding Natural Growth

Natural Growth is the change (increase or decrease) in the number of people in a population during a specified period, resulting from the balance between births and deaths.

Migration and Emigration Dynamics

An Emigrant... Continue reading "Essential Demographic Concepts and Spanish Population Data" »

Foundations of Geography

Branches of Geography

• Physical Geography: The study of natural features like landforms and climate.
• Human Geography: The study of people, their communities, and cultures.

Types of Maps

• General-Purpose Maps: Display a wide range of information about an area.
• Thematic Maps: Focus on a specific theme, such as population density or climate zones.
• Topographic Maps: Show detailed information about the shape and features of the land's surface.

Location Systems

• Military Grid Reference System: Uses easting (vertical lines) and northing (horizontal lines) for precise location.
• Latitude: Horizontal lines measuring distance north or south of the equator.
• Longitude: Vertical lines measuring distance east or west of the prime meridian.

Time

Prehistory: The Dawn of Humanity

Prehistory is a term used to refer to the first and longest phase or age into which human history has been divided by Eurocentric/Western academic tradition. It covers most of the human past, around 2.8 million years, since the appearance of the first member of the hominid family: *Homo habilis*, the first to make and devise tools made of stone. At the beginning of the 19th century, a Danish archaeologist, Christian Jürgensen Thomsen, concluded that objects and tools made of stone tended to be older than those made of metal. He divided this remote human past into two main phases: the Stone Age and the Metal Age.

Subdivisions of the Stone Age

A few decades later, another archaeologist, John Lubbock, after studying... Continue reading "Human Prehistory: From Stone Tools to the Holocene" »