Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Dividing the World

Globalization has extended the culture and way of life of the USA and some European countries to the rest of the world.

The world today can be divided into two main parts:

• Central areas
• Peripheral areas

Global cities (New York, London, Tokyo, Paris, Frankfurt) are the main decision-making centers for multinational companies, large banks, and important international organizations.

Support for Globalization

Arguments in favor of globalization:

• Globalization promotes the exchange of goods, services, capital, and people.
• This process benefits all countries and individuals.
• Globalization can bring people, countries, and cultures closer together.
• Globalization leads to greater cooperation.
• The transmission of data enriches the lives of individuals.

Economy and Society in the 17th Century

The 17th century is sometimes referred to as a period of general crisis in agriculture, economic growth, demography, and social conflict.

Economy

Agriculture

Rural areas suffered from low productivity, with the exception of England and the Low Countries, where new agricultural techniques were developed. Agriculture became less productive due to changes in climate and decreased demand for agricultural products.

Craft Production and Trade

• In southern Europe, craftsmanship was still regulated by guilds. However, the domestic system spread in northwest Europe. This way, cheaper products could be obtained more efficiently.
• Before the 17th century, Spain, Portugal, and Italy were the main economic powers. In this

French Revolution of 1789

The French Revolution (1789) was a complex process that ended the Ancien Régime and paved the way for a new liberal society and new ways of thinking and living.

Convocation of the Estates-General

King Louis XVI’s minister, Calonne, proposed that the nobility contribute to paying taxes. The nobility refused, leading to a serious political crisis and forcing Louis XVI to convene the Estates-General. This situation fueled widespread discontent, resulting in the creation of so-called Cahiers de doléances (notebooks of grievances). These notebooks highlighted the people’s discontent with the monarchy. Enlightened sectors of the bourgeoisie demanded equal representation in the Estates-General compared to the nobility... Continue reading "French Revolution of 1789: A Comprehensive Account" »

The Catholic Monarchs

Carlos I

Development of Trade and Capitalism

National and international trade grew as transport improved. Different regions specialized in different products.

Capitalism: Money was invested in industries to grow and produce more money for new investments.

1. Leads to more complex companies and societies; people invested capital, and others administered it.
2. Companies sold shares, and the stock exchange market developed.

Banks became increasingly important. They provided loans and invested capital. Financial operations became more complex, and banks and businesses began to use checks and letters of credit.

Spread of the Industrial Revolution

Britain's example was followed by other European countries (Belgium, France, Switzerland, Germany).

Consequences of the Industrial

What Was Feudalism?

Feudalism was the political, economic, and social system that existed in Western Europe between the 10th and 13th centuries.

How the Feudal System Worked

Feudalism was a system in which a free person became dependent on another, becoming their vassal.

The Lord-Vassal Commitment

The commitment between the vassal and the lord was sealed with an act of homage. In this act, the vassal swore fealty (loyalty) to his lord and promised to provide him with help and advice.

The Lord's Obligations and the Fief

In return, the lord swore to protect his vassal and provide him with a fief. A fief was normally land intended to provide the vassal with the resources needed to make a living.

Daily Life in the Fief

The fief was a rural estate composed... Continue reading "Feudalism in Western Europe: System, Society, and Daily Life" »

The Problems Affecting Relief and Soil

Alterations Made to the Relief

Changes to the relief are caused by mines and quarries as well as by transport infrastructure. The landscape is marred, and locations of geological importance are destroyed.

This problem affects natural environments and is more common in poor countries, where mining provides the foundation for their economy.

Alterations Made to the Soil

Two main problems are erosion and pollution.

Erosion and Desertification

Erosion of the soil is due to deforestation and inappropriate agricultural and livestock farming methods. In developed countries, intensive and single-crop farming are common; in the poorest countries, it is due to not leaving farming land fallow and excessive grazing of pasture... Continue reading "Problems Affecting Relief and Soil" »

Ancient Iberia

Celts

Celtic peoples, an Indo-European group, migrated to the Iberian Peninsula between the 10th and 5th centuries BC. Organized into clans and tribes, their hierarchical society placed warriors at the top. These cattle farmers resided in fortified hilltop villages known as castros, which were largely self-sufficient due to limited trade. Their dwellings were typically rounded, and they practiced polytheism and cremation in designated necropolis.

Celtiberians

Representing a more developed Celtic group due to Iberian influence, the Celtiberians inhabited larger settlements called oppida and possessed a written language.

Iberians

Indigenous to the Iberian Peninsula, Iberians were influenced by colonizers such as the Phoenicians and... Continue reading "Ancient Iberia: Celts, Iberians, and Roman Conquest" »

Deforestation and Biodiversity Decline

Deforestation: Causes and Consequences

Deforestation is the removal of plant cover. It is caused by:

• The mass burning or felling of trees to transform land for agricultural, livestock farming, or residential uses.
• Supplying timber to industries.
• The building of infrastructure.
• The collecting of firewood.

As a result of deforestation:

• Levels of carbon dioxide increase.
• Humidity levels, along with water reserves, are diminished.
• Soil erosion increases due to the lack of protection and binding provided by vegetation.
• Animal and plant species become extinct due to the disappearance of natural habitats.

Damage to Woodlands and Jungles

Developed countries: Damage is most widespread in temperate and frigid woodland regions,... Continue reading "Deforestation's Impact on Biodiversity and Ecosystems" »

New York City: Top Attractions

Here are some of the most iconic and must-see attractions in New York City:

1. Statue of Liberty

   Located on Liberty Island, at the entrance to New York Harbor, the Statue of Liberty is an iconic symbol of freedom and democracy. It was a gift from France to the United States and has been an important landmark since its inauguration in 1886.

2. Empire State Building

   This iconic New York skyscraper is located on Fifth Avenue and is famous for its art deco architecture. With its 102 floors, the Empire State Building offers impressive panoramic views of the city from its observation deck on the 86th floor.

3. Chinatown

   It is a vibrant and bustling neighborhood in lower Manhattan, known for its Chinese community and distinctive culture.