Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Demographic Regimes

Old Demographic Regime: Characterized by high birth and mortality rates (often catastrophic due to epidemics, famines, and wars), resulting in limited natural growth. This was typical of pre-industrial societies before the 19th century.

Demographic Transition Regime: Initially features high birth rates but lower mortality rates due to improved food availability, hygiene, and health, leading to increased natural growth. Towards the end of the transition, birth rates decline, and growth slows. This regime was present in Europe after the Industrial Revolution. The population pyramid was progressive, indicating a large base of young people and a small elderly population.

Modern Demographic Regime: Mortality and birth rates stabilize... Continue reading "Demographic Regimes and Population Density" »

Introduction

The Rapa Nui are the indigenous Polynesian habitants of Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean. The easternmost Polynesian culture, the descendants of Easter Island's original peoples make up about 60% of Easter Island's current population & a significant part of its population resides on Chile's mainland. They speak both the traditional Rapa Nui language & Chile's primary language, Spanish.

History

Rapa Nui R believed 2 have settled Easter Island between 300 & 1200 CE. Previously, the date of arrival was estimated 2 be around 700–800 CE, but more-recent evidence demostrate other date. Jacob Roggeveen was the 1st European 2 record contact with the Rapa Nui. Roggeveen allready set sail either in search of Juan Fernandez Islands... Continue reading "Discovering the Rapa Nui: History, Culture, and Moais" »

Ecotourism and Responsible Travel

Ecotourism is a type of sustainable tourism that emphasizes conserving nature and improving the lives of local people in rural and wilderness areas. When we visit beautiful places, it's natural to want our holidays to have a positive impact on local people and their environments. Responsible travel is about more authentic holiday experiences that enable you to get a little bit more out of your travels and give a little bit more back to destinations and local people. All holidays have positive and negative impacts locally. Responsible travel maximizes the benefits and minimizes the negative effects of tourism.

Costa Rica: A Popular Ecotourism Destination

Costa Rica is a very popular spot for ecotourism. It combines... Continue reading "Sustainable Tourism: Ecotourism Destinations and Impacts" »

What is economic activity?

Economic activities are all the processes used to obtain the goods and services that people need. The three phases of economic activity are:

• Production → is all the goods and services which are created as a result of an economic activity.
• Distribution → is the process of moving goods and services from the place of production to the consumer.
• Consumption → is all the goods and services that people buy to satisfy their wants and needs.

History of payment

• Barter → direct exchange of goods
• Natural coins → valuable natural items, with an agreed value like shells, cocoa, salt, furs
• Metal coins → the first metal coins were made in Lidia (present-day Turkey) in the 7th century BC
• Paper money → notes first appeared in

The Rise of Industrialization

Between 1750 and 1850, industrialization revolutionized Britain. The lives of its citizens changed drastically during these years, a period known as the Industrial Revolution. Industrialization is the process in which a society adopts a mechanized system of production and way of life. The importance of industry became crucial as the economy shifted from raw materials to manufactured goods. Industrialization brought new job opportunities and a new division of social classes. But how and why did this happen?

Population Growth and Early Changes

In Britain, the main catalyst was a significant population increase, spurred by technological and health advances that led to a lower mortality rate. This population boom created... Continue reading "Industrial Revolution in Britain: Key Factors and Impacts" »

The Spanish Empire

Political Structure

Empire: A state that governs different territories with inhabitants of diverse cultural backgrounds.

Composite Monarchy: A set of territories united under a single monarch, with each territory maintaining its own institutions.

Capital: The seat of government.

Parliament: The most powerful institution in each state of the kingdom, composed of the high nobility, high clergy, and high bourgeoisie.

Concejos: Collegiate institutions that advise the king on territorial, thematic, and state matters.

Governor, Viceroy, Corregidor: Officials who govern a territory or city on behalf of the king.

Audiencias and Chancelleries: Courts of justice.

Justicia de Aragon, Generalitat de Catalunya: Institutions that defend the laws... Continue reading "The Spanish Empire: A Comprehensive Overview" »

Indian Coal Types, Formation, and Uses

1. Coal Types in India

   Describe the qualities of four different types of coal found in India. How is coal formed?
   • Peat: Low carbon and high in moisture.
   • Lignite: Low-grade brown coal, soft and with high moisture content.
   • Bituminous Coal: High carbon and low moisture content, the most popular coal for commercial use.
   • Anthracite: The highest quality hard coal.

   Coal is formed due to the compression of plant material over millions of years. Most coal was formed during the Carboniferous period.

2. Renewable Energy Resources

   What are renewable resources? Why has it become necessary to use renewable energy resources?

   The resources which can be renewed or reproduced by physical, chemical, or mechanical processes are known as

A New Historical Period

The Modern Age is the historical period from the 15th to the 18th century. The year in which this period began is a subject of debate amongst historians. The most widely accepted dates are either the capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453) or the discovery of America (1492). Its conclusion is marked by the French Revolution (1789). The Modern Age is often divided into a number of sub-periods which have more or less homogeneous features: the 16th century or Renaissance period, the 17th century, or Baroque period; and the 18th century, or Enlightenment and Absolutism.

Changes in the 15th and 16th Centuries

From the mid-15th century and over the course of the 16th century, Europe underwent transformations that affected... Continue reading "Historical Shifts: The Dawn of the Modern Age" »

Global Discoveries and Early Modern Journeys

The Portuguese Explorations

The Portuguese prince, Henry the Navigator, encouraged the development of navigation skills and the exploration of the African coast. There was considerable rivalry with Castilla in this region, but it was resolved with the signing of the Treaty of Alcáçovas in 1479.

The treaty granted Castilla the right to conquer the Canary Islands, while Portugal was allowed to explore the African coast south of Cape Bojador.

Key Portuguese achievements included:

• Reaching Cape Bojador in 1431.
• Reaching the Gulf of Guinea in 1460.
• In 1487, Bartolomeu Dias successfully rounded the Cape of Good Hope.
• In 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India, establishing a direct sea route.

Castilla and the Discovery

Hydroelectric energy is generated by flowing water that turns a turbine. This movement creates a current, and this current is converted into energy using turbines and generators.

Hydroelectric Energy in Bizkaia

In Bizkaia, Alstom Hydro in Bilbao is part of the largest global industrial and technology group related to hydroelectric energy, boasting over 100 years of experience.

How Hydroelectric Energy Works

This energy works because water accumulates in one place, then passes through a turbine. The turbine moves, converting the water's movement into energy.

Historical Evolution of Hydroelectric Power

In the past, a wooden wheel was used in the middle of a river. It had a chain of wood that spun over the river, taking water to generate electricity.... Continue reading "Hydroelectric Power: A Clean Energy Source" »