Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Geography

Biotechnology

Biotechnology is a discipline that uses technology in biological processes. It uses living organisms to obtain particular products or processes.

Traditional Biotechnology

Traditional biotechnology uses microorganisms in production processes to complete them or increase their efficiency.

Areas Where It Is Used

• Food: Bread is made thanks to the fermentation produced by the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Alcoholic drinks also use S. cerevisiae, and cheese and other dairy products are made by allowing certain bacteria to ferment.
• Healthcare: Vaccines are made by using fragments of microorganisms or weakened ones, and antibiotics are made by certain molds.
• Environmental: Bacteria are used to eliminate organic matter in sewage. It is also

Understanding Services and Trade

What are Services?

Services encompass all activities that do not directly produce tangible goods but fulfill people's wants and needs. In developed countries, the service sector, also known as the tertiary sector, contributes over 70% of wealth and employment.

Types of Services

Services can be categorized into two main types:

• Public Services: Financed by the state through taxes.
• Private Services: Offered by private companies or individuals.

Location of Services

Traditionally, services were primarily located in urban areas. However, with advancements in technology, many advanced services, particularly those involving new technologies, are concentrated in business districts within metropolitan areas.

Improvements in communication... Continue reading "Understanding Services and Trade: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Key Industries of the Industrial Revolution

The textile and iron industries were the dominant sectors during this period.

The Textile Industry

In the 18th century, there were large volumes of trade in hand-printed cotton fabric from India (known as indianas). The British government boosted the production of cotton fabric within Britain. The mechanization process started with John Kay's flying shuttle (1733), which increased the speed of production and made it possible to weave wider fabrics. This was followed by spinning machines like the spinning jenny, spinning mule, and water frame, which significantly increased productivity.

The Iron Industry

In the 18th century, there was a huge rise in demand for iron to manufacture ships, munitions, machines,... Continue reading "Key Industries of the Industrial Revolution: Textiles, Iron, and Coal" »

The Modern Age

A New Historical Period

The Modern Age (15th-18th centuries) is generally considered to have begun with the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 or with the discovery of America in 1492, and it ended with the French Revolution in 1789.

The Modern Age is divided into several sub-periods:

* 16th century: Renaissance period * 17th century: Baroque period * 18th century: Enlightenment and Absolutism

Changes in the 15th and 16th Centuries

From the mid-15th century to the 16th century, the international landscape underwent significant changes due to these events:

* The disappearance of the Byzantine Empire: Following the capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, Western Christianity felt increasingly under threat from... Continue reading "Modern Age: Transformations, Discoveries, and Key Events" »

New York City: Beyond Manhattan

Let's take a look at some facts about New York City:

• What is happening to New York areas outside of Manhattan?

  They are getting more expensive.

• What is the main cause of robberies in New York?

  People's carelessness.

• Where is the safest place to live, according to Derrick Edwards?

  Far from a train station.

• How do New Yorkers mostly get around?

  By public transport, which is convenient and affordable.

• What does New York have in common with San Francisco?

  High-income people proud about not having a car.

The Enigma of Stonehenge

Here are some interesting points about Stonehenge:

• The stones at Stonehenge were built to frame the winter solstice.

• The sun set between the stones to shine onto the altar stone.

• Modern Druids and Pagans

Climate Classification

Climate refers to the typical weather that a place experiences over many years. Different parts of the world can be described as having dry, wet, hot, or cold climates.

Spain's Diverse Coastal Regions

• Mediterranean Coast & Balearic Islands

  Includes the coastline from Cape of Creus to the Strait of Gibraltar.

• Cantabrian Coast (North)

  Located along the northern edge of the peninsula.

• Atlantic Coast (West)

  This Atlantic sector has two parts: Galician and Andalusian.

• Canary Islands Coastline

  Features a variety of coastlines with beaches and cliffs.

Prominent Mountain Ranges of Spain

Major External Mountain Systems

• The Pyrenees

  Located between Spain, Andorra, and France, featuring Mount Aneto.

• Basque Mountains

  Low mountains that connect the Cantabrian Mountain Range with the Pyrenees.

• Catalan Coastal Range

  Located in front of the Mediterranean Sea.

• Betic Systems: Penibetic & Subbetic

  Located in the southeast of the peninsula,

The Aztecs

The Aztecs arrived to the valley of Mexico around the year 1218. They took refuge on the marshy lands around Lake Texcoco, where, in 1344 or 1345 they built the town of Tenochtitlan. At this time the Aztec community was composed of a small number of kinship, landholding groups called calpulli.

Aztec Imperial Expansion

For a long time the Aztec were subservient to the Azcopotzalco. But in 1428 the Aztec war chief Itzcoatl, the Texcoco and the Tlacopan joined forces to destroy the Azcopotzalco. This triple alliance led to the conquest of the valley of Mexico and much of Middle America. Gradually the Aztec got stronger than their allies. The conquest of the Valley of Mexico made it easier for the Aztecs to conquer the rest of Middle America... Continue reading "The Aztecs: History, Expansion, and Society" »

Improvements in 19th Century Living Conditions

• Enhanced Nutrition

  Nutrition improved, making the population more resistant to illness. This was possible thanks to advances in agriculture and changes in people's diets. Corn and potatoes became staple foods.

• Public Health Advancements

  In 1796, Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine for smallpox, a disease with a high mortality rate. New hospitals were also built during this period.

• Personal and Public Hygiene

  People began to wear cotton clothes, which were easier to wash. There was better access to clean drinking water.

• Decline in Epidemics

  Frequent in the Early Modern period, epidemics began to cause fewer deaths.

19th Century Social Classes

• The Peasantry

  In the 19th century, the majority of the population

Past and Current Demographic Models

• The Preindustrial Model

  This model has high birth and death rates because the population is weakened by disease, epidemics, and famine.

• The Modern or Demographic Transition Model

  This model originated in the Industrial Revolution and spread worldwide during the 19th century.

  1. The first phase has strong population growth as a result of natural increase. Birth rates are high, and death rates fall rapidly.

  2. In the intermediate phase, natural increase slows down. Death rates remain low, but birth rates begin to fall.

  3. In the final phase, the population stagnates, or there is very slow growth. Both birth and death rates are very low, and the tendency is toward zero growth.

The Territorial Organization of Spain

Main Institutions