Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for English

Core Linguistic Concepts

Determiners and Modifiers

The **Zero Determiner** refers to indeterminacy, often seen in phrases like "human beings who are rational."

• **Verb vs. Adjective:** Verbs often use the continuous form (e.g., *be + -ing*). Adjectives allow gradation (e.g., *very entertaining*).
• **Adverb vs. Adjective:** Adverbs modify verbs; adjectives modify nouns.

English Verb Classification

Main Verb Types

Verbs are classified based on their complementation patterns:

• **Intransitive (H):** Requires only the head/subject (e.g., *She signed, I am eating*).
• **Copulative (H + PCS):** Links the head/subject to a Predicate Complement of the Subject (e.g., *Turned red, seems an interesting idea, in good condition*).
• **Transitive (H + DO):** Requires a Direct

... Continue reading "Verb Classification and Dative Alternation in English Grammar" »

A Kiss Before Dying

Key Events and Clues

1. A home that… CARAVAN
2. Be sick: THROW UP
3. After taking the pills: PAIN
4. He read the books: PAIN
5. All around the room: GELATIN CAPSULES
6. If he didn’t marry: SUSPICIOUS
7. The young man dropped: (Left Blank)
8. ''We have to go…: BIRTH CERTIFICATE
9. Personal FILES
10. A lawyer. A person: ATTORNEY

Questions and Answers

1. What do you know about Dorothy’s mother?

   She was married to Dorothy's father when Dorothy was born, but eight years later, her father realized that she was with another man. He broke up with her. She was ill when she was with Leo, but after he broke up with her, she died.

2. What is the relationship between the book La Casa de las Flores Negras and Dorothy’s suicide note?

   Bud told Dorothy that he didn’t know how to

... Continue reading "A Kiss Before Dying: Unraveling a Murder Mystery" »

English Grammar

Verb Tenses

Past Tense Transformations

• Present Simple (eats/eat) → Past Simple (ate)
• Don't/Doesn't → Didn't
• Present Continuous (am, is, are + v ing) → Past Continuous (was, were + v ing)
• Past Simple (-ed or irregular) → Past Perfect (had + past participle)
• Present Perfect (have, has + past participle) → Past Perfect
• Past Perfect (had + past participle) → Past Perfect
• Past Continuous (was, were + v ing) → Past Perfect Continuous (had + been + v ing)
• Present Perfect Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous
• Past Perfect Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous
• Future: Will + infinitive → Would + infinitive
• Can → Could + infinitive
• Must/Have to → Had to + infinitive
• May → Might + infinitive

Changes in Reported Speech

• Now → Then
• Today

... Continue reading "English Grammar and Vocabulary Guide" »

Reported Speech

Types of Reported Speech

Yes/No Questions

Structure: S + reporting verb + if/whether + S + past tense verb

Example: He asked if he was late.

Wh- Questions

Structure: S + reporting verb + wh-word + S + past tense verb

Example: He asked where he had left his keys.

Orders and Requests

Structure: S + reporting verb + object + (not) + to + infinitive

Note: Use "told" for orders.

Example: He told me to be quiet.

Suggestions

Structure 1: S + suggest (tense) + (not) + verb-ing

Structure 2: S + suggest + that + S + should + infinitive

Example: She suggested going for a walk.

Reporting Verbs

Verbs followed by "to + infinitive"

Examples: agree, offer, refuse, promise, threaten

Example: We agreed not to buy a car.

Additional verbs with object: advise, invite,... Continue reading "Reported Speech: A Comprehensive Guide with Examples" »

Complete the sentences with the verbs below in Past Simple:

walk, enjoy, like, watch, travel, finish, listen

1. Lucy liked her birthday presents.
2. Last weekend I walked in the mountains for 2 hours.
3. We enjoyed the party very much.
4. Ken listened to his favorite CD yesterday.
5. My sister studied Maths for an exam.
6. They traveled to the USA in 2003.
7. Dad washed his car last weekend.
8. The film finished at 11:30.

Write the sentences in negative:

1. Lucy didn't like her birthday presents.
2. Last weekend I didn't walk in the mountains for 2 hours.
3. We didn't enjoy the party very much.
4. Ken didn't listen to his favorite CD yesterday.
5. My sister didn't study months for German.
6. They didn't travel to the USA in 2003.
7. Dad didn't wash his car last weekend.
8. The film didn't finish at 11:30.

... Continue reading "English Past Tense, 'Used To,' and Present Continuous" »

Distinctive Feature Theory

Distinctive Feature Theory challenges Phoneme Theory (PT) by focusing on the features that compose phonemes, rather than the phonemes themselves. This approach questions the validity of the phoneme concept, arguing that speech is not simply a series of discrete sounds.

Natural Class: A set of sounds sharing phonetic features, affected by the same environment, and having the same effect on surrounding sounds.

Major Class Features

• Vowels: [+SYLLABIC], [+SONORANT], [-CONSONANTAL] - form the syllable nucleus.
• Glides: [-SYLLABIC], [+SONORANT], [-CONSONANTAL].
• Sonorant Consonants (nasals and liquids): [+/-SYLLABIC], [+SONORANT], [+CONSONANTAL].
• Obstruents: [-SYLLABIC], [-SONORANT], [+CONSONANTAL].

Consonant Features

• Voice: [+/-VOICE]

... Continue reading "Phonetics and Phonology: Distinctive Features and Vowel Sounds" »

Orden of adjectives: O(opinion), S(size), SH(shape), A(age), C(colour), O(origin).
____________________________________________________
FUTURE:
-Will: Predictions, opinions, spontaneous, decisions.
-Be going to: plans for the future, intention of future, predictions with evidence.
-Present continuous: Arrangements(preparativos), dates(fechas).
-Future continuous: S+WILL+BE+GERUND. Finished action in the future.
-Future perfect: S+WILL+HAVE+PAST PART. Completed action in the future
____________________________________________________
Such...that / So...that:
Such + (a/an [singular]) + adjective + noun + that
It was such a cramped street that we couldn't walk.
So + adjective + that
The street was so cramped that we couldn't walk.

Conditional sentences:

First... Continue reading "Orden of adjectives, future, conditional sentences and wishes and regrets in English" »

Traffic Management in London: Answer Key

(A) Comprehension Questions (4 points)

1. Reason for Traffic Increase: Because traffic has increased significantly since the scheme's introduction.
2. Methods of Reduction: By collecting money from fees and fines and reducing private traffic. (Both reasons must be given.)
3. Statement 3: TRUE. All motorists coming into the capital between 7:00 a.m. and 6:30 p.m. have to pay a £5 admission fee. (Line 4)
4. Statement 4: FALSE. The Government took an attitude of wait and see. (Line 8)
5. Statement 5: FALSE. Private traffic is now down by 20 per cent. (Line 9)
6. Statement 6: TRUE. If you put it in a package, a majority of motorists will support it. (Lines 12-14)

(B) Use of English and Vocabulary (3 points)

7. Synonyms for Pleased:

... Continue reading "English Practice Key: London Congestion Charge and Japanese Imperial Family Protocol" »

Mastering Reported Speech: Tense Transformations

When reporting what someone said, the tenses often shift. Here's a breakdown of common tense changes:

• Present Simple (makes) → Past Simple (made)
• Present Continuous (is making) → Past Continuous (was making)
• Past Simple (made) → Past Perfect (had made)
• Past Continuous (was making) → Past Perfect Continuous (had been making)
• Present Perfect (has made) → Past Perfect (had made)
• Present Perfect Continuous (has been making) → Past Perfect Continuous (had been making)
• Past Perfect (had made) → Past Perfect (had made) (no change)
• Past Perfect Continuous (had been making) → Past Perfect Continuous (had been making) (no change)
• Future Simple (will make) → Conditional Simple (would make)
• Future

... Continue reading "Mastering Indirect Speech: Tense & Adverb Transformations" »

Morphological Analysis

This section details the morphological characteristics observed in early Middle English texts.

Nouns

Examples include: boc (book), Englisca boc (English book), Latin (Latin), Albin (Albin), Austin (Austin), feire (fair), fulluht (baptism), Frenchis clerc (French clerk), quene (queen), kinges (king), leaf (leaves). Note that boc (book) uses the singular form, while leaf (leaves) is the plural form. The pluralization of leaf does not follow the modern -s or -es form, illustrating historical variation.

Verbs

Examples include: bi-won (obtained), nom (took), makede (made), broute (brought), leide (laid), wende (turned). bi-won (obtained) shows the prefix bi-, which is less common in Modern English. The past tense forms nom (took)... Continue reading "Early Middle English Linguistic Analysis" »