Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Competitive examination

Understanding Criminal Complaints (Denuncia)

Definition of a Criminal Complaint

A criminal complaint (denuncia) is a declaration of knowledge made by an individual to an official body, informing them of a fact that constitutes a crime. It serves as a fundamental mechanism for public cooperation in anti-crime efforts, a duty imposed by the state.

Key Characteristics and Obligations

The obligation to report crimes is primarily due to Judicial Police officers, who integrate these reports into their investigative steps.

Who is Required to Report Public Offenses?

• Witnesses: Individuals who have directly observed the commission of a public offense.
• Professionals: Persons who, by reason of their employment, profession, or occupation, become aware of a public

Key Concepts in English Language Teaching

1. Language as Communication

Oral and written language. Factors that define a communicative situation: transmitter, receiver, function, and context.

2. Communication in the Foreign Language Classroom

Verbal and non-verbal communication. Extralinguistic strategies: non-verbal reactions to messages in different contexts.

3. Development of Linguistic Skills

Oral expression and comprehension, written expression and comprehension. Communicative competence in English.

4. Evaluating Foreign Language Knowledge

Evaluating foreign language knowledge as an instrument of communication between people. Interest in linguistic diversity through the knowledge of a new language and its culture.

5. The Cultural Framework of English

Historical Perspectives on Species Development

Humanity has conceived diverse theories throughout history to explain the origin and development of species. Two primary schools of thought emerged: Fixism and Evolution.

Understanding Fixism

Fixism is a theory asserting that living species have remained unchanged since their creation. It posits that species are immutable and have not derived from one another. This view often includes the idea that each species has a predetermined purpose within a hierarchical natural order.

Types of Fixism

• Early Philosophical Fixism

  Some early philosophical views, particularly from ancient Greece, suggested that species originated from fundamental elements (like the four elements) but then remained fixed in their form.

Antipositivism in Sociology

Sociology, as a non-empirical field, studies social action through subjective means. If society is viewed as separate from individuals, the state might be perceived as totalitarian. However, the state is the highest form of social organization, while society represents the lifestyle and organization of individuals. The state aims to defend common interests, and individuals are subordinate neither to society nor to the state.

The Interplay of Law and Society

Laws originate from society, making all legal phenomena social phenomena. However, not all social phenomena are legal. Examples of social phenomena include fashion, good manners, and sports. Legal sociology explores the relationship between social structure and... Continue reading "Understanding Social Action: A Weberian Perspective" »

Expository Text: Definition and Structure

Characteristics of Expository Writing

• The text aims to disclose or explain a particular subject.
• The information provided must be:
  • Clear (*Clara*)
  • Necessary (*Necesaria*)
  • Simple and Rigorous (*Sencilla y Rigurosa*)
• Should follow a logical order, adhering to the standard structure:

• Introduction
  • Development
  • Conclusion
• A specific lexicon related to the subject being discussed must be used.
• In many cases, the text is illustrated with charts, drawings, and diagrams to enhance understanding.
• The established structure must be followed consistently.

Expository Text Preparation

Preparing for an Exposition: Essential Steps

To prepare an expository text, the following steps must be followed:

1. Choose a theme and a suitable title.

United States: Key Facts & Cultural Insights

The head of state and of the government is the President of the United States. The capital is Washington D.C. The USA occupies all the territory of North America, between Mexico and Canada, as well as the peninsula of Alaska and the island of Hawaii. This makes a total of 9.5 million km² and a population of some 300 million inhabitants.

Geographical Framework of the USA

The geographical characteristics of the USA are diverse due to its vast size. Three zones must be distinguished:

• The continental zone, where different geophysical regions are observed.
• Alaska, formed by a mountainous region.
• The Hawaiian Islands, which are of volcanic formation.

The most important river is the Mississippi.

Historical

The Buying Decision Process: Stages

These are the operating phases involved in a new buying situation. In repurchase scenarios, whether modified or direct, some of these stages are reduced or omitted.

1. Identification of the Problem

Someone within the company becomes aware of a problem or need that can be met by purchasing a good or service. This realization occurs through internal or external stimuli.

2. General Need Description

This stage involves describing the general characteristics, required quantity, and timing of the need.

3. Product Specification

The buying organization decides and specifies the optimal technical features of the product. Sometimes, a team is assigned to conduct a value analysis, carefully studying the most important components... Continue reading "Organizational Buying Decision Process Stages" »

Geographical, Historical, and Cultural Framework of English-Speaking Nations

English is spoken as a first language in countries such as the United Kingdom (UK), the Republic of Ireland, the USA, and Canada. In many other nations, English serves as an official language alongside a local tongue (e.g., India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Israel). This document concentrates on two of the closest and most important countries: the UK and the USA.

The United Kingdom (UK)

General Data: The United Kingdom

Its complete name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. It is formed by four constituent countries:

• England
• Wales
• Scotland
• Northern Ireland

The UK covers an area of approximately 245,000 km² and has around 60 million inhabitants.

The Union Jack

The Crisis of 1640: Spanish Monarchy Collapse

In 1640, the Spanish monarchy faced a profound collapse, marked by the revolts of Catalonia and Portugal. The immense economic strain due to the Thirty Years' War had drastically increased the tax burden and led to desperate measures to acquire funds. Discontent surged across all sectors of society, unleashing a secessionist crisis that threatened the very disintegration of the Spanish monarchy.

The Catalan Revolt (1640-1652)

The atmosphere of confrontation was particularly severe in Catalonia. This tension was exacerbated by the attempt of the Unión de Armas in 1632, a plan to centralize military contributions. Following Spain's entry into war with France, the increased presence of Spanish troops... Continue reading "Spain's 1640 Crisis: Revolts and Monarchy Collapse" »

Analysis of a Journalistic Opinion Piece

Textual Characteristics

This journalistic opinion piece, extracted from a newspaper, explores the subject of ... . The author's primary aim is to present their perspective and persuade the reader of its validity. The text blends expository and argumentative writing styles, explaining events while advocating for a specific viewpoint.

Structure

The text follows a traditional three-part structure:

• Introduction: ...
• Development: ...
• Conclusion: ...

Main Ideas

The central arguments presented are:

• ...
• ...

Further details and explanations complement these core ideas.

Author's Thesis

The author's main contention is that ............................. This thesis is strategically positioned within the text to ... .

Language