Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Chemistry

Neologism

A new word in our language.

Etymology

The study of the origin and history of a word. It has its origins in Greek.

Coinage

The invention of totally new terms. The most typical sources are invented trade names for commercial products that become general terms. Examples: Aspirin, Vaseline, nylon, etc.

Eponyms

A word based on the name of a person or a place. These are usually based on the names of those who first discovered or invented things.

Calque

A direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language. Example: Hot dogs (perros calientes).

Compounding

The process of combining words. Examples: bookcase, textbook.

Blending

The combination of two separate forms to produce a single new term by taking the first part of one word and... Continue reading "Understanding English Word Formation Processes" »

Classification of Metals

Metals are categorized based on their composition and density:

• Ferrous: Metals or alloys that contain iron.
• Non-ferrous: Pure metals that do not contain iron.

Density Classification

• Ultralight: Density less than 2 g/cm³.
• Light: Density between 2 and 5 g/cm³.
• Heavy: Density superior to 5 g/cm³.

The Metal Extraction Process

1. Obtaining minerals from mines and pits.
2. Separation of the mineral into ore and gangue.
3. Obtaining the pure metal from the mineral.
4. Final treatment.

Mining Operations

Mining is an industrial activity that consists of extracting elements, compounds, and minerals of economic interest from the Earth. There are two types of mines:

• Open-air mines
• Underground mines

Siderurgy and Iron Production

Siderurgy is the industry... Continue reading "Metal Classification, Extraction, and Processing Methods" »

What is an atom?

Atoms are the basic units of matter and the defining structure of elements.

What is an electron?

A subatomic particle with a charge of negative electricity.

What is the nucleus of an atom made of?

Is made up of protons and neutrons.

What is a proton?

Elemental particle of the nucleus of the atom and that has a positive electric charge.

What is a neutron?

A subatomic particle of about the same mass as a proton but without an electric charge.

Where is the mass of an atom concentrated?

In the nucleus most of 99.9% of the mass is concentrated here.

An atom is mostly empty space?

Yes.

What is the function of neutrons?

To allow protons to be together.

What surrounds the nucleus of an atom?

The nucleus is surrounded by electron clouds that produce... Continue reading "Understanding Atoms and Quantum Mechanics: A Comprehensive Guide" »

Chemistry Fundamentals

Arranging the Elements: The Periodic Table

• Organizing the elements according to their properties.
• Dmitri Mendeleev discovered a pattern to the elements in 1869.
• Periodic means “happening at regular intervals.”
• Mendeleev found that element properties follow a pattern that repeated every 7 elements.
• He found that elements yet to be found would fill the gaps. By 1886, all of the gaps had been filled.
• In 1914, Henry Moseley determined the number of protons. Elements were arranged by atomic number. The Periodic Law states that the repeating physical and chemical properties of elements change periodically with the element's atomic number.

Classifying Elements on the Periodic Table

• Metals: Found to the left of the zigzag line on

In the periodic table, elements are classified into metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. Metals are ductile, malleable, shiny, are good conductors for heat and electricity. All metals are solids at room temperature and pressure except, Mercury. Nonmetals exist as solids, liquids, or gases. A liquid non-metal at room temperature and pressure is Bromine.

2. The elements in the d-block in the periodic table have several characteristics in common.

(i) Give the electron configuration of N²⁺

1S2 2S2 2P3- 2= 1S2 2S2 2P1

(ii) Explain what is meant by a ligand and describe the type of bond formed between a ligand and a d-block element.

It is an atom or molecule with a lone pair of electrons that combine with a metal through coordinate covalent bonding. In transition... Continue reading "Chemistry Basics: Metals, Nonmetals, and Transition Elements" »

Foundations of Atomic Theory

Early Atomic Ideas: Democritus to Dalton

The concept of the atom has evolved significantly over centuries. Ancient Greek philosopher Democritus speculated that matter was composed of elementary, indivisible particles he called atoms.

Centuries later, John Dalton proposed the first modern atomic theory, laying the groundwork for modern chemistry. His postulates included:

• All matter is made of atoms.
• Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.
• All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties.
• Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of atoms.
• A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms.
• Atoms can be neither created nor destroyed.

Discovery of the Electron: J.J. Thomson

J.J. Thomson'

Electricity and Atoms

Electricity is an electric charge. But there is much more behind than the simple statement:

• Where do the charges come from?
• How do we move them? Where do they move?
• How does an electric charge cause mechanical movement or invent things?

Atoms and Charge

To understand it we start with atoms, one of the basic blocks of life and matter. An atom is three different particles: electrons, protons and neutrons. Each atom has a central nucleus, where protons and neutrons are attached. Around the nucleus there is a group of electrons in orbit. The number defines which chemical element the atom represents. This set is called the atom's atomic number. Electrons are the operation of electricity In its most stable and balanced state, an atom... Continue reading "Understanding Electricity: Atoms, Charge, and Flow" »

• Metal + nonmetal = ionic bond

•  Nonmetal + nonmetal = covalent bond  

•  Metal + metal = metallic bond

• Electron filling pattern: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f

• Physical Changes

  • Do not create a new substance.

• Chemical Changes - Do produce new substances.

•  Ions - Atoms can gain or lose electrons to form ions (atoms with a charge. 

• • Anion - Atom with a negative charge. 

• • Cation - Atom with a positive charge.
  

• quantitative= number/amount, qualitative= observation of physical change
  

• alkali metals the column of elements from lithium to francium.
  

• Alkaline earths the column of elements from beryllium to radium.
  

• Halogens the column of elements from fluorine to astatine.
  

• The Periodic Law states that the physical and

Ionic Bonds

Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. Ionic bonds form when a metal and a non-metal exchange electrons. Positive ions are called cations and negative ions are called anions.

Ionic Substances

All ionic compounds form crystals that consist of lattices of positive and negative ions packed together in a regular way. The lattice is held together by the strong electrostatic attractions between the ions. Ionic compounds form crystals because the ions are arranged in a regular and repeated pattern, known as a Giant Ionic Lattice.

Properties of Ionic Substances

• High Melting and Boiling Points: Ionic bonds are very strong. Significant energy is required to break