Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Biology

Sepsis Classification

According to Gates of Sepsis

Morphology of Sepsis

• Inflammatory Focus
• Microorganism Entering Bloodstream
• Systematic Change in Immune System

Bacteremic Toxic Shock

Syndrome induced by an abundant amount of toxins and biologically active substances released into the bloodstream by bacteria and injured tissue cells.

Morphological Features

• Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation
• Hemorrhagic Syndrome
• "Empty Heart"
• "Shock Kidney"
• "Shock Lungs"

Cyclic Infection

• Exoinfection (autonomous disease)
• Etiology: Obligatory Pathogenic
• Specific Immune Response
• Immunity Develops

The Cell Cycle

The cell cycle consists of two main phases: interphase and mitosis (M phase) [3].

Interphase

Interphase is further divided into three phases:

1. G1 phase (Gap 1): During this phase, the cell grows in size and carries out normal metabolic activities [4].
2. S phase (Synthesis): In this phase, DNA replication and chromosome duplication occur [4].
3. G2 phase (Gap 2): The cell continues to grow and prepares for cell division [4].

Mitosis (M phase)

Mitosis is the actual phase of cell division and is divided into four stages:

1. Prophase: Chromosomes condense, the nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear, and spindle fibers start to appear [4].
2. Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the equatorial plate [4].
3. Anaphase: Centromeres divide, and chromatids move towards

Reproduction

• Asexual reproduction: Requires only one parent.
• Sexual reproduction: Requires two parents, female and male.

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

1. Spore formation: The plant produces small unicellular structures called spores that become new individuals without attaching themselves to other cells.
2. Vegetative reproduction:
   • Bulbs: Underground stems (e.g., onion or garlic).
   • Stolons: Aerial stems that root when they touch the ground and produce new stems (e.g., strawberry).
   • Stem tubers: Subterranean stems (e.g., potato).

Asexual Reproduction in Animals

• Gemmation or Budding: A small bump or bud appears on the body of the progenitor; it grows and takes on the form of the adult (e.g., sponges).
• Fragmentation: A new organism grows from a fragment of the

Basic Concepts

Characteristics of Living Things

• Movement - motion where the organism will go from one place to the other
• Responsiveness - how any organism reacts
• Growth - an organism's ability to get bigger
• Reproduction - ability of an organism to produce offspring
• Respiration - the ability of an organism to gain oxygen from food
• Digestion - ability of an organism to break down food
• Absorption - ability of an organism to take in nutrients
• Circulation - ability of materials to go through the body
• Assimilation - food is taken in and changed to something essential
• Excretion - ability of our bodies to remove waste

Homeostasis and Regulation

Musculoskeletal and Fascial Structures

• What muscle does the superficial cervical fascia contain?
  Platysma.
• In which part of the mandible is the stylomandibular ligament inserted?
  Angle and posterior border of the ramus of the mandible.
• In which part of the mandible is the lateral pterygoid muscle inserted?
  Neck of the mandible (pterygoid fovea).
• Which two muscles are inserted into the pterygomandibular raphe?
  Buccinator and superior pharyngeal constrictor.
• From which branchial arch are the masticatory derivatives?
  1st branchial arch.
• Which two muscles form part of the medial wall of the infratemporal fossa?
  Tensor veli palatini and levator veli palatini.

Neuroanatomy and Cranial Nerves

• In what part of the brain is the hippocampus located?
  Limbic system (temporal

Eyes

Orbital Hematoma (Black Eye)

An orbital hematoma, commonly known as a black eye, results from a blow to the area surrounding the eye, which causes capillary bleeding.

Signs & Symptoms:

• Noticeable swelling and discoloration around the orbit.

Orbital Fracture

An orbital fracture is caused by a direct blow to the eyeball, forcing it posteriorly. This action compresses the orbital fat until a blowout rupture occurs to the floor of the orbit.

Signs & Symptoms:

• Diplopia (double vision)
• Restricted eye movement
• Downward displacement of the eye

Hyphema

A hyphema is a collection of blood in the anterior chamber of the eye, typically resulting from blunt trauma to the eye. This is a major eye injury that can lead to serious problems.

Signs & Symptoms:

Characteristics of Living Organisms

• Respiration and Metabolism

  Cells carry out chemical reactions, such as respiration, to produce energy.

• Reproduction

  The process of creating new organisms, which can be sexual or asexual.

• Nutrition

  Chemical substances used for growth, repair, and other vital functions.

• Growth

  An increase in the size and number of cells.

• Homeostasis

  The ability to regulate the internal environment to maintain it constant or within certain limits.

• Excretion

  The removal of waste products generated by metabolism.

• Movement

  The ability to change position.

• Sensitivity

  The ability to detect changes in the external environment.

Comparing Animal and Plant Cells

Animal Cell Structure

Key components include the nucleus, vacuole, cell membrane, and granular... Continue reading "Fundamental Characteristics of Life and Cell Biology" »