Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Biology

Essential Terminology in Human Anatomy and Physiology

Skeletal System and Musculature

• Scapula: A flat, triangular bone that forms the back of the shoulder.
• Tibia: The inner bone of the lower leg.
• Femur: A bone in the leg extending from the pelvis to the knee.
• Ulna: The bone in the forearm located on the side opposite the thumb.
• Radius: The bone in the forearm located on the side of the thumb.
• Humerus: The long bone in the arm running down from the shoulder to the elbow.
• Skull: The bones of the head, which surround the brain and give the head its shape.
• Pelvis: The bones below the abdomen that support the lower back and are connected to the bones of the leg.
• Hip: The joint and surrounding region connecting the leg to the trunk.
• Deltoid: A large muscle

Tissues

Types of Tissues

• Epithelial Tissue: Covers the interior and exterior body surfaces.
• Connective Tissue: The most abundant type of tissue.
• Nervous Tissue: Transmits nerve impulses.
• Muscle Tissue: Provides movement.

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment within an organism. One mechanism to achieve homeostasis is feedback inhibition, where a stimulus produces a response that opposes the original stimulus.

Nutrition

Macronutrients

• Carbohydrates: The major source of energy in the body.
• Fats: A combination of glycerol and fatty acids. They absorb fat-soluble vitamins, store energy, and protect body organs.
• Proteins: Molecules that supply raw materials for growth and repair.

Micronutrients

• Vitamins: Organic molecules

Head and Neck Anatomy: Quick Facts

1. Which muscle does the superficial cervical fascia contain? Platysma
2. Which part of the mandible is the stylomandibular ligament inserted? Angle and posterior border of ramus
3. What kind of secretion does the sublingual gland produce? Mixed, mainly mucous
4. What are the two anastomoses of the deep branch of the submental artery? Infra labial (facial) & mental artery (inferior alveolar)
5. Which nerve runs through the sphenopalatine foramen? Nasopalatine nerve
6. In which part of the brain is the hippocampus located? Limbic system
7. Which masticatory muscles do muscular branches of the facial artery supply? Medial pterygoid & masseter
8. What four cranial nerves (CNs) are related to the parasympathetic system? 3, 7, 9, 10
9. What

Respiratory System

Fetus: developing unborn baby.

Organelles and Functions:

• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum: Responsible for the assembly of many proteins • Cell Membrane: Controls the movements in & out of the cell and organelles • Golgi Apparatus: Process and bundle macromolecules like proteins and lipids • Mitochondria: Perform cellular respiration 0 Breaks nutrients into energy • Nucleus: Contains a majority of the genetic material • Nucleolus: Rewrite ribosomal RNA and combine it with proteins • Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum: Makes cellular products like hormones and lipids • Lysosome: Digestion and waste removal • Flagella: Allows cells to move • Vesicle: Transport vesicles move molecules within the cell • Ribosomes: Makes proteins within cells • Cytoskeleton:... Continue reading "Structure of garter and grendel model cell membrane" »

Cell Membrane Transport and Internal Systems

Roles of Membrane Proteins

Membrane proteins perform vital functions necessary for cell survival, communication, and structural integrity.

Adhesion Proteins

• Embedded in the membrane, primarily located on either the outer or inner cell surface.
• They anchor the cell in position within the extracellular matrix or anchor structures inside the cell.

Communication Proteins (Gap Junctions)

• Span the entire membrane.
• Connect to gap junctions in a neighboring cell.
• Form large channels between cells, connecting their cytoplasm.
• Facilitate chemical and electrical signaling between adjacent cells.

Receptor Proteins

• Embedded in the membrane, with the receptor site exposed on one side.
• Signal molecules (i.e., hormones) bind

Cell Transport: Endocytosis vs. Exocytosis

• Similarity and Difference:

• Both are forms of active transport (specifically vesicle transport).
• Endocytosis brings materials into the cell, while exocytosis moves them out.

Cell Response to Solute Concentration

Understanding how a cell reacts to different external solute concentrations:

• Hypertonic: More solute outside the cell than inside. Water travels out of the cell.
• Isotonic: Balanced solute concentration inside and outside the cell. Water travels in and out at the same rate.
• Hypotonic: More solute inside the cell than outside. Water travels into the cell.

The Endosymbiotic Theory

Origin of Eukaryotic Organelles

This theory states that organelles such as chloroplasts and mitochondria were once free-living... Continue reading "Cell Transport and Organelle Evolution Concepts" »