Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Biology

Understanding the Heart's Anatomy

The heart is the pump which circulates the blood throughout the body. It is approximately the size of a person's fist and is located in the chest, slightly left of center.

Myocardium: The Heart's Muscular Walls

The myocardium refers to the muscular walls that make up the heart, essential for its pumping action.

The Heartbeat and Cardiac Cycle

The heartbeat refers to the rhythmic sounds that the heart makes as it pumps blood. This rhythm can also be observed by feeling the arterial pulse. The left and right halves of the heart function as synchronized pumps, working simultaneously.

Phases of the Cardiac Cycle

The cardiac cycle describes the sequence of events that occurs during one complete heartbeat. It consists of... Continue reading "The Human Heart: Anatomy, Function, and Blood Circulation" »

blood circulation: closed: blood always circulates through the blood vessels and never leaves them. double: blood must flow through the heart twice to complete a circuit. oxygenated and deoxygenated blood never mix. they circulate through different circuits. systematic and pulmonary circuits: VI>CU>AD> VD> PUL>AI

Adaptation of Xylem to its Function

• Long, made from cells joined end to end to form tubes/vessels
• Cell walls thickened with lignin, a hard, strong material
• Lignin makes cell walls waterproof
• Cells have no cytoplasm or organelles (no cell contents)
• No end-to-end walls between cells
• Pits in the walls for water movement between vessels

Define Transpiration

Loss of water vapor from plant leaves by evaporation of water at the surfaces of the mesophyll cells followed by diffusion of water vapor through the stomata.

Leaves have many more stomata in their lower epidermis than they do in their upper epidermis, and most transpiration happens there.

Factors Affecting Transpiration

• The large internal surface area provided by the interconnecting air spaces between

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

Asexual reproduction is the process through which an organism produces other organisms without the participation of more than one parent.

Methods of Asexual Reproduction

Runner or Stolon

Runners or stolons can produce buds that develop into new plants that are clones.

Fragmentation

Fragmentation occurs when a small part of the plant falls off onto the soil and begins to grow into a new plant.

Budding

Each bud will grow like a clone of the original plant that produced it, such as a potato.

Gemmation

Gemmae are shed and dispersed to other areas, where they grow to produce new individuals.

Vegetative Propagation

Vegetative propagation happens when someone takes a part of the plant and replants it in another place.

Animal Tissues

Types

Recognize the following words and give Pinyin for them:

• 住院 zhùyuàn
• 学期 xuéqī
• 专业 zhuānyè
• 基础 jīchǔ
• 时间 shíjiān
• 要求 yāoqiú

Make up sentences with the given words:

• 这学期你们开了几门课？我想去医院看朋友。
• 窗户上挂着一个牌子。在病历里夹着吗？什么时候可以出院？
• 我昨天晚上一点才睡觉。学校下个星期六开运动会。我们留学生可以参加吗？

Choose the proper words to fill in the blanks:

• 你的解剖实验报告写完了吗？
• 星期一我已经把请假条交给老师了。
• 还是不能确定是肺癌还是肺结核。
• 这是一部关于中国历史的电影。
• 上星期卡瓦不是来借过你的词典吗？

Common rescue drugs for allergic shock:

• Immediately subcutaneous

When a cell is not in a state of division and is in the phase known as interphase, its nucleus is more or less spherical and located in the center or near the periphery. During the interphase, we can distinguish the following structures:

• Nuclear membrane: This is a covering formed by two membranes covered in ribosomes. The membranes have perforations called nuclear pores, which allow substances to be exchanged between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
• Nucleoplasm: This is the liquid in the nucleus.
• Nucleolus: This is a rounded structure that is darker than the rest of the nucleus. It is where the components of the ribosomes are created.
• Chromatin: This is made up of DNA filaments and proteins. During cell division, it condenses and forms chromosomes.

Central Nervous System

Cerebrum

The cerebrum interprets information sent by sensory receptors, regulates muscle activity, and is involved in emotional and intellectual processes. It has two hemispheres joined by the corpus callosum, which is made up of neuron axons. The cerebrum also has a superficial layer of gray matter called the cerebral cortex.

Thalamus and Hypothalamus

The thalamus and hypothalamus produce hormones and control the endocrine system.

Cerebellum

The cerebellum controls motor coordination, posture, and balance. It has two hemispheres and a central zone.

Brainstem

The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord. It includes the medulla oblongata, which regulates blood pressure, heartbeat, and respiration.

Hemispheric Specialization

There... Continue reading "Human Nervous System: Structure, Function, and Disorders" »

Fundamentals of Living Things and Environment

Composition of Living Matter

Living things are primarily composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. These elements constitute organic matter.

Essential Life Functions

Living things perform three main functions:

• Nutrition
• Interaction
• Reproduction

Conditions Necessary for Life

The fundamental conditions required for life include:

1. Liquid water
2. A magnetic field
3. A protective atmosphere
4. Carbon compounds
5. An energy source

Environmental Factors

Abiotic Factors

These are the environmental and physical conditions that influence where organisms can live.

Biotic Factors

These encompass the living things within an environment and the interactions between them.

Ecosystem Components

Biotope

This is the non-living part of an... Continue reading "Fundamentals of Ecology: Organisms, Environment, and Soil" »

What are we made of?

Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins, Water.

Metabolism:

All chemical reactions that take place inside the body.

Carbohydrates:

Include sugars and starches. Contain three types of atoms: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.

Sugars: The simplest kind of carbohydrates are the simple sugars or monosaccharides, such as glucose and fructose. If two monosaccharides join, a disaccharide is formed.

Polysaccharides:
If many simple sugars join together, a molecule called a polysaccharide is made. (Starch and glycogen are polysaccharides.)

Carbohydrates Functions:
Energy: Energy is released by respiration. The carbohydrate used in respiration is usually glucose.
Transport: Animals transport glucose around the body, plants transport sucrose.
Storage: Plants store... Continue reading "Understanding Carbohydrates, Fats, Proteins, and Enzymes" »