Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Biology

Human Circulatory System: Double Circulation

The human circulatory system performs double circulation, meaning that the blood passes through the heart twice in order to complete a full circuit. The two loops are completely separate from one another, which prevents the mixing of deoxygenated blood.

• Blood passes through the lungs.
• All the organs receive blood that is equally rich in oxygen and nutrients.

Right Half of the Heart

• Vena cavae carry blood back to the heart.
• Blood enters through the right atrium and moves to the right ventricle.
• Blood exits through the pulmonary artery and goes to the lungs.

Left Half of the Heart

• Pulmonary veins bring blood from the lungs to the heart.
• Blood enters through the left atrium and moves to the left ventricle.
• Blood

Cell Structure and Function

1. Cytoplasm

   The cytoplasm is the internal "soup" of the bacterial cell, bounded on the outside by the cell envelope. It is mostly water, but contains bacterial inclusions.

2. Cell Membrane

   The cell membrane protects the cell from its surroundings. It controls the movement of substances in and out of cells and consists of the phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

3. Nucleus

   The nucleus is located in the very center of the cell and serves as the control center. It is made up of the nucleolus, chromosomes, and is surrounded by the nuclear envelope.

4. Nuclear Envelope

   The nuclear envelope surrounds the nucleus with a double membrane and multiple pores. The pores regulate the passage of macromolecules but permit free passage of

MENDEL’S LAWS OF INHERITANCE

During the mid-nineteenth century, significant progress was made in understanding inheritance. Gregor Mendel conducted hybridization experiments on garden peas for seven years (1856-1863) and proposed the laws of inheritance in living organisms. Mendel's investigations marked the first time statistical analysis and mathematical logic were applied to problems in biology. His experiments involved large sample sizes, enhancing the credibility of his collected data. The confirmation of his inferences through successive generations of test plants demonstrated that his results reflected general rules of inheritance rather than mere speculation.

Mendel studied characters in garden pea plants that exhibited two contrasting... Continue reading "Mendel's Laws of Inheritance: Understanding Genetics" »

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Composition and Structure

• Name: Deoxyribonucleic Acid
• Composition: Deoxyribonucleotides (nucleotides with deoxyribose: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T))
• Structure: Outer skeleton with pentose and phosphate, bonded by complementary bases.

Location and Functions

• Location: In the nuclei of eukaryotic cells and the cytoplasm of prokaryotic cells.
• Functions: Controls cell activities and carries genetic information.

Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Composition and Structure

• Name: Ribonucleic Acid
• Composition: Ribonucleotides (nucleotides with ribose: Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Uracil (U))
• Structure: Single chain of ribonucleotides.

Location and Functions

• Location: In the nucleus and cytoplasm of cells.
• Functions:

Neck Muscles

Longus Colli

O: C3-C5, anterior tubercles of the transverse process; C5-T3, anterior surfaces of bodies; C2-C6, anterior surfaces
I: C2-C6 anterior surface
A: Laterally flexes head and neck, rotates head and neck towards the same side

Sternocleidomastoid

O: Mastoid process
I: 1/3 medial clavicular head
A: Flexes head and neck, laterally flexes head and neck, rotates head and neck to the opposite side

Longus Capitus

O: C3-C6
I: Occipital bone
A: Flexes head and trunk bilaterally

Rectus Capitus Anterior

O: C2 atlas
I: Occipital bone
A: Flexes head and neck

Splenius Capitus

O: Ligamentum nuchae
I: Temporal bone, mastoid process
A: Rotates head to the same side, extends head and neck

Splenius Cervicis

O: T3-T6 spinous processes
I: C2-C3 posterior tubercles
A:

Sepsis Classification

According to Gates of Sepsis

Morphology of Sepsis

• Inflammatory Focus
• Microorganism Entering Bloodstream
• Systematic Change in Immune System

Bacteremic Toxic Shock

Syndrome induced by an abundant amount of toxins and biologically active substances released into the bloodstream by bacteria and injured tissue cells.

Morphological Features

• Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation
• Hemorrhagic Syndrome
• "Empty Heart"
• "Shock Kidney"
• "Shock Lungs"

Cyclic Infection

• Exoinfection (autonomous disease)
• Etiology: Obligatory Pathogenic
• Specific Immune Response
• Immunity Develops

The Cell Cycle

The cell cycle consists of two main phases: interphase and mitosis (M phase) [3].

Interphase

Interphase is further divided into three phases:

1. G1 phase (Gap 1): During this phase, the cell grows in size and carries out normal metabolic activities [4].
2. S phase (Synthesis): In this phase, DNA replication and chromosome duplication occur [4].
3. G2 phase (Gap 2): The cell continues to grow and prepares for cell division [4].

Mitosis (M phase)

Mitosis is the actual phase of cell division and is divided into four stages:

1. Prophase: Chromosomes condense, the nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear, and spindle fibers start to appear [4].
2. Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the equatorial plate [4].
3. Anaphase: Centromeres divide, and chromatids move towards

Reproduction

• Asexual reproduction: Requires only one parent.
• Sexual reproduction: Requires two parents, female and male.

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

1. Spore formation: The plant produces small unicellular structures called spores that become new individuals without attaching themselves to other cells.
2. Vegetative reproduction:
   • Bulbs: Underground stems (e.g., onion or garlic).
   • Stolons: Aerial stems that root when they touch the ground and produce new stems (e.g., strawberry).
   • Stem tubers: Subterranean stems (e.g., potato).

Asexual Reproduction in Animals

• Gemmation or Budding: A small bump or bud appears on the body of the progenitor; it grows and takes on the form of the adult (e.g., sponges).
• Fragmentation: A new organism grows from a fragment of the

Basic Concepts

Characteristics of Living Things

• Movement - motion where the organism will go from one place to the other
• Responsiveness - how any organism reacts
• Growth - an organism's ability to get bigger
• Reproduction - ability of an organism to produce offspring
• Respiration - the ability of an organism to gain oxygen from food
• Digestion - ability of an organism to break down food
• Absorption - ability of an organism to take in nutrients
• Circulation - ability of materials to go through the body
• Assimilation - food is taken in and changed to something essential
• Excretion - ability of our bodies to remove waste

Homeostasis and Regulation