Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Biology

Historical Perspectives on Memory

Phrenology and Molecular Theories

Phrenology: Personality determined... Continue reading "Neuroscience of Memory: From Historical Theories to LTP" »

Common Circulatory System Disorders

• Thrombosis: Occurs when a blood clot causes a blockage in a blood vessel, which can lead to a heart attack or stroke.
• Leukaemia: A type of cancer characterized by an excess of white blood cells.
• Anaemia: A condition where there are not enough red blood cells in the body.
• Arteriosclerosis: Occurs when artery walls become harder due to the buildup of fats and cholesterol.
• Atherosclerosis: When plaque on an artery wall prevents blood from flowing through the artery.
• Myocardial Infarction: Commonly known as a heart attack, caused by a blockage of blood flow in one of the heart's coronary arteries.
• Hemophilia: A hereditary, inherited condition where blood cannot clot properly because of a lack of blood-clotting proteins

Muscles of the Head and Neck

Facial Muscles

• Frontalis
• Orbicularis oculi
• Nasalis
• Zygomaticus major
• Zygomaticus minor
• Levator labii superioris
• Levator anguli oris
• Orbicularis oris
• Depressor labii inferioris
• Depressor anguli oris
• Mentalis
• Buccinator
• Occipitalis

Muscles of Mastication

• Masseter
• Temporalis

Neck Muscles

• Platysma
• Sternocleidomastoid
  • Origin: Sternum and clavicle
  • Insertion: Mastoid process of the temporal bone
  • Action: (Not specified)
  • Nerve: CN XI (Accessory nerve)
• Omohyoid
• Sternohyoid
• Sternothyroid
• Thyrohyoid
• Scalenes

Anatomy of the Eye

Extrinsic Eye Muscles

• Superior rectus: CN III (Oculomotor nerve)
• Inferior rectus: CN III (Oculomotor nerve)
• Lateral rectus: CN VI (Abducens nerve)
• Medial rectus: CN III (Oculomotor nerve)
• Superior oblique: CN IV (Trochlear nerve)
• Inferior

Why Humans Need to Eat

• Molecules in food contain chemical energy that cells use to produce ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate).
• Food supplies raw materials your body needs to build and repair tissues.

Six Essential Nutrients the Body Needs

The six essential nutrients required by the body are:

• Carbohydrates
• Water
• Proteins
• Fats (Lipids)
• Vitamins
• Minerals

Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats

Similarities

Both saturated and unsaturated fats are lipids made from glycerol and fatty acids (chains of carbon and hydrogen molecules).

Differences

• Saturated fats are typically solids at room temperature.
• Unsaturated fats are usually liquids at room temperature.

Using Food Labels for a Balanced Diet

Food labels are crucial for planning a healthful diet. They help consumers determine if... Continue reading "Essential Nutrients and Human Body Functions" »

Main Characteristics of Vertebrate Animals

Vertebrate animals belong to the Animal Kingdom and possess the following characteristics:

• They have an internal skeleton that allows movement, protects the organs, and gives support to their body.
• They have blood to carry nutrients and waste products throughout the body.
• They have articulated limbs (fins, wings, or legs).

We are going to study the following vertebrate groups:

Classification and Features of Fish

• Aquatic: They have a fusiform body (thinner at the tips) and fins. They breathe through gills.
• Poikilothermic: They cannot maintain a constant body temperature.
• Lateral line: A line crossing their body that is able to detect vibrations in the water.
• External fertilization: Gametes join in the environment,

Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a community of plants and animals (living things) that interact with each other and their natural surroundings, including non-living things such as rocks, water, and air. Each ecosystem is sustained by a flow of energy through it and the recycling of nutrients within it.

Community

When plants and animals live together, they form a community.

Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process in which plants absorb CO₂ from the air and convert it into sugar using the sun's energy.

Biomes

Biomes are large ecosystems at the global scale where the climate and vegetation are uniform.

Xerophytic Plants

Xerophytes are plants that have adapted by altering their physical structure to survive in harsh climates. These plants exhibit several... Continue reading "Introduction to Ecosystems and Ecology" »

The Interaction Function

The interaction function enables people to perceive changes and stimuli that occur both inside their bodies and their environment, to interpret or process them and generate coordinated responses in order to survive.

1.1 Perceiving Stimuli

The interaction function can be divided into 3 stages: perception of stimuli, processing of the information and generation of responses.

A stimulus is a physical or chemical change that takes place outside or inside the body and triggers a response in it.

Our bodies contain specialist cells, called receptors, which perceive stimuli and send the information they detect to the coordination centres.

Types of Receptors

• Internal receptors perceive changes inside the body, such as a rise in blood

Absorption by the Roots

Key Biological Definitions

1. Imbibition: It is the phenomenon by which a living or a dead cell absorbs water through surface attraction.
2. Diffusion: It is the free movement of molecules of a substance from a region of higher concentration to lower concentration when the two are in direct contact.
3. Osmosis: It is the process of movement of water molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.
4. Endosmosis: It is the inward diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane when the surrounding solution is less concentrated.
5. Exosmosis: It is the outward diffusion of water through a semi-permeable membrane when the surrounding solution is more concentrated.
6. Osmotic

Muscle spindles stimulate stretch, while Golgi tendon organs stimulate muscle contraction. Cerebellar tremor is characterized by low frequency. Motor pathways begin in the cerebral cortex and brainstem. Lower spinal cord motoneurons innervate skeletal muscles, including extrafusal and intrafusal fibers. Stimulation of muscle spindles or Golgi tendon organs is accomplished through the reticulospinal tract.

Muscle Tone and Movement Disorders

• Hypotonia: Decreased muscle tone
• Dyskinesia: Atypical, unconscious muscle movement
• Hypertonia: Increased muscle tone
• Spasticity: Hyper-contraction of muscles
• Akinesia: Atypical unconscious posture

Cortical Control of Movement

Layer V contains pyramidal neurons. The primary motor cortex contains smaller and fewer... Continue reading "Motor Control: Pathways, Neurons, and Muscle Function" »