Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Baccalaureate

Basement Membrane Structure & Function

Covering & Lining Epithelia

Early Foundations and Key Milestones in Plant Tissue Culture

The science of plant tissue culture originates from the discovery of the cell, followed by the postulation of cell theory. In 1838, Schleiden and Schwann proposed that the cell is the basic structural unit of all living organisms. They envisioned that a cell is capable of autonomy and, therefore, it should be possible for each cell, if given the right environment, to regenerate into a whole plant. Based on this premise, in 1902, German physiologist Gottlieb Haberlandt for the first time attempted to culture isolated single palisade cells from leaves in Knop’s salt solution enriched with sucrose. The cells remained alive for up to one month, increased in size, accumulated starch,... Continue reading "Milestones in Plant Tissue Culture Development" »

Xerophyte Adaptations

(Plants adapted to dry/arid environments – e.g., cactus, Opuntia)

1. Structural Adaptations

• Thick cuticle to reduce water loss.
• Sunken stomata to trap moisture and reduce transpiration.
• Reduced leaves (spines) to minimize water loss.
• Thick stems that store water (succulent stems).
• Deep or widespread roots to access water from deeper soil layers.

2. Physiological Adaptations

• CAM photosynthesis (in some) to open stomata at night.
• High osmotic pressure to absorb water quickly.
• Fewer stomata in number or present only on the lower surface.

Hydrophyte Adaptations

(Plants adapted to aquatic environments – e.g., lotus, water hyacinth)

1. Structural Adaptations

• Thin cuticle or absent cuticle as water is abundant.
• Large air spaces (aerenchyma)

Alcohols, Thiols, Ethers, Aldehydes, and Ketones

1. Identifying Functional Groups

• Alcohol: -OH group attached to a carbon atom.
• Phenol: -OH group attached directly to a benzene ring.
• Thiol: -SH group (sulfhydryl group).
• Ether: C-O-C linkage (oxygen atom bonded to two carbon groups).
• Aldehyde: -CHO group (carbonyl group at the end of a chain).
• Ketone: C=O group (carbonyl group) located in the middle of a chain.

2. Naming Conventions (Nomenclature)

• Alcohol: Replace the alkane suffix “-e” with “-ol” (e.g., ethanol).
• Phenol: Named as phenol, often requiring position numbers.
• Thiol: Use the suffix “-thiol”.
• Ether: Name both alkyl or aryl groups, followed by the word “ether”.
• Aldehyde: Use the suffix “-al”.
• Ketone: Use the suffix “-one”.

Exceptional Measures Without Successful Securitization

• Securitization theory posits that security threats are socially constructed through speech acts rather than objective dangers.
• However, exceptional measures, such as emergency laws, surveillance, or restrictions on rights, can be implemented without a successful securitization move.
• For instance, COVID-19 lockdowns were exceptional measures, but they were not always framed as a “security” issue like terrorism.

Characteristics of Securitization

• A shift from the political sphere to the security sphere occurs when a political issue (e.g., immigration, climate change) is transformed into a security threat.
• Existential threat language is employed, framing the issue as an urgent crisis that threatens

Review of Art Spiegelman's Maus

Maus by Art Spiegelman is a groundbreaking graphic novel that tells the true story of Vladek Spiegelman, a Jewish survivor of the Holocaust, as narrated by his son, Art. Combining historical events with personal struggles, the novel explores trauma, memory, and the complexities of father-son relationships.

One of the most striking aspects of Maus is its artistic style. Spiegelman represents different groups using animals—Jews as mice, Nazis as cats—which serves as a powerful metaphor for oppression and survival. The black-and-white illustrations enhance the raw and emotional tone of the story, making it even more impactful.

The novel alternates between past and present, depicting both Vladek’s survival and... Continue reading "Art Spiegelman's Maus: A Holocaust Narrative" »

Key Facts About Peter, Antonio, and Elaine

Character Backgrounds and Relationships

1. Peter's Father and Hell's Kitchen

   Question: Who grew up in New York's Hell's Kitchen neighborhood? What is his relationship with Antonio?

   Answer: Peter's father.

2. Antonio's Summer Visits

   Question: Why does Antonio come back to New York?

   Answer: In summer to visit friends.

3. Peter's Studies and Elaine's Career

   • Who is studying New York history? Peter.
   • Who works as a sports journalist? Elaine.

4. Antonio's Thanksgiving Celebration

   Question: How does Antonio celebrate the Thanksgiving festival?

   Answer: With a traditional meal (turkey, mashed potatoes, etc.).

5. The Aspiring Actor

   Question: Who wanted to be a professional actor?

   Answer: Antonio Banderas.

New York City Activities and Culture

2. Little

Acid Value Determination in Oils: Principle and Procedure

Here's an explanation of the principle and procedure involved in determining the acid value of an oil sample:

Principle

The acid value of an oil sample is a measure of the amount of free fatty acids present in the oil. The principle of the acid value determination is based on the reaction between the free fatty acids in the oil and a strong base, such as potassium hydroxide (KOH). The reaction is as follows:

RCOOH (Free Fatty Acid) + KOH → RCOOK (Potassium Salt) + H₂O

Procedure

Here's the step-by-step procedure for determining the acid value of an oil sample:

1. Apparatus

• 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask
• Burette
• Pipette
• Volumetric flask
• Phenolphthalein indicator

2. Reagents

• Potassium hydroxide (KOH) solution

1. Anagram Detection: C++ String Comparison

This C++ program determines if two input strings are anagrams of each other. It achieves this by converting both strings to lowercase, sorting their characters alphabetically, and then comparing the sorted strings. If they are identical, the original strings are considered anagrams.

#include<bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;

int main(){
    string s2,s1;
    cin>>s1>>s2;
    transform(s1.begin(),s1.end(),s1.begin(),::tolower);
    transform(s2.begin(),s2.end(),s2.begin(),::tolower);
    sort(s1.begin(),s1.end());
    sort(s2.begin(),s2.end());
    cout<< (s2==s1);
}

2. Array Subarray: C++ Sliding Window Minimum

This C++ program attempts to find the maximum of minimums within... Continue reading "C++ & C Programming Solutions: Algorithms & Patterns" »