Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Baccalaureate

Essential Definitions of US Executive and Legislative Functions

Core Government Systems and Election Terminology

Parliamentary System

System of government where the legislature selects the Prime Minister or President.

Presidential Ticket

Joint listing of Presidential and Vice Presidential candidates on the same ballot.

Presidential Authority and Constitutional Clauses

Vesting Clause

The President’s constitutional authority to control most executive functions.

Take Care Clause

Constitutional requirement that Presidents “take care that the laws be faithfully executed.”

Inherent Powers

Powers that grow out of the very existence of government.

Executive Privilege

The right to keep executive communications confidential, especially if relating to national... Continue reading "Key Terminology of the American Presidency and Political Systems" »

Metaphysics: An Introduction

The term *metaphysics* was coined by students of Aristotle. The literal meaning was "after the physics." Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that addresses basic questions about the nature of reality.

Determinism and Freedom

According to determinism, everything that happens is determined by prior causes. The state of the universe at any moment could not be otherwise. One implication of this view is that all future states of the universe are, in principle at least, completely predictable. The principle that every event is caused is known as the *causal principle*. It is presupposed in science in everyday life. Most of the astonishing progress that science has made over the past four centuries has been made on the... Continue reading "Metaphysics: Determinism, Freedom, and the Nature of Reality" »

What Is a System?

A system is two or more interacting parts (subsystems) working together to achieve one or more goals.

Example:
A company is a system. It includes the Sales department, Accounting department, and HR department, all working together to earn profit.

Goal Conflict

Goal conflict occurs when one subsystem’s goal hurts the overall organization.

Example:
Sales offers heavy discounts to increase sales numbers, but profits fall.

Goal Congruence

Goal congruence occurs when subsystem goals align with company goals.

Example:
Sales increases revenue while maintaining profit margins.

Integration

Integration eliminates duplicate recording, storage, and reporting.

Example:
Customer data is entered once and shared across departments instead of being entered... Continue reading "Accounting Information Systems and Business Cycles" »

Cenozoic Era Periods

The periods of the Cenozoic Era, in order from oldest to youngest, are Paleogene, Neogene, Quaternary.

Plate Tectonics and Orogenies

Convergent and Transform Margins

• What is an example of a continental-continental convergent plate margin? Himalayas
• What is an example of a transform plate margin? San Andreas Fault

North American and Alpine Orogenies

• The orogenic event of the North American Cordillera, which began in the Late Cretaceous and extended into the Cenozoic, is the Laramide Orogeny.
• The Alpine orogeny resulted in the formation of which mountains? Alps, Atlas, and Pyrenees.
• The rapid northward movement of India resulted in the formation of the Himalayan mountains.
• How did orogens in the Pacific region differ from the Himalayan

Structuralism: The First School of Psychology

Structuralism was the first systematic school of psychology. It was founded by Wilhelm Wundt and further developed by Edward B. Titchener.

• Focus: The structure of consciousness.
• Method: Introspection.
• Goal: To identify basic elements such as sensations, feelings, and images.

Structuralism treated the mind like a chemical compound. Its primary contribution was making psychology a separate scientific discipline. However, it faced criticism because introspection is subjective, it ignored the function of the mind, and it was not applicable to children or animals. Today, it remains the foundation of experimental psychology.

Functionalism and Mental Processes

Functionalism emerged as a reaction against structuralism.... Continue reading "Major Schools of Psychology and Their Core Theories" »

Essential English Grammar: Verb Patterns

Verbs Followed by Gerund (V + ING)

These verbs require the gerund form (V + ING):

• love, hate, like, be good at, admit, appreciate, avoid, can’t help, consider, delay, deny, discuss, dislike, enjoy, finish, give up, imagine, involve, mention, mind, miss, practice, and suggest.

Verbs Followed by Infinitive (To + Verb)

These verbs and phrases require the to + infinitive form:

• afford, agree, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, be careful, choose, be difficult, decide, expect, fail, happen, help, hope, intend, learn, manage, offer, need, plan, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, seem, tend, tell, want, wish, and would like.

Verbs Followed by Bare Infinitive (Base Form)

The bare infinitive is used with:

• Modal verbs (e.

Introduction to Industrial Control Systems

Control systems are fundamental to industrial automation, with a primary focus on Distributed Control Systems (DCS). This document covers the core components, variables, and applications of these systems.

Learning Outcomes

• Describe the components of a control system.
• Define the three types of variables associated with a control system.
• Provide examples of common control systems.
• Explain distributed control systems and their industrial applications.
• List and define components of DCS, including SCADA, communication, and alarms.

Components of an Automation System

A modern automation system is composed of several interconnected components:

• Control System: The brain of the operation, processing inputs and making

Chapter 11 – Unemployment & Labor Markets

BLS Household Survey

• 60,000 households monthly

• Population: 333,287,557

  • Age 17+: 269,523,012

  • Children: 63,764,545

  • Civilian Noninstitutional Population: 263,973,000

  • Labor Force: 164,287,000

    • Employed: 158,291,000

    • Unemployed: 5,996,000

    • Not in Labor Force: 99,686,000

Key Formulas:

• Unemployment Rate (UR) = (Unemployed / Labor Force) × 100 → 3.7%

• Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR) = (Labor Force / Civilian Noninstitutional Pop) × 100 → 62.2%

Alternate Measures of Unemployment (U1–U6):

• U3: Official unemployment rate

• Marginally attached: sought work in the past year but no longer looking

• Underskilled: working below qualifications or hours desired

• Involuntarily part-time: want full-time but work part-time

• US Unemployed

Municipal Bond Yield Calculations

Equivalent Taxable Yield (ETY)

A municipal bond carries a coupon rate of 6.00% and is trading at par.

Required Calculation 1: ETY for a 38% Tax Bracket

What would be the equivalent taxable yield of this bond to a taxpayer in a 38% combined tax bracket?

The formula for Equivalent Taxable Yield ($r$) is:

$$r = r_m / (1 - t)$$

• $r$: Equivalent Taxable Yield
• $r_m$: Municipal Bond Yield (6.00% or 0.06)
• $t$: Tax Rate (38% or 0.38)

Calculation:

$$0.06 / (1 - 0.38) = 0.096774 \rightarrow \mathbf{9.68\%}$$

Required Calculation 2: Municipal Yield Preference

An investor is in a 40% combined federal plus state tax bracket. If corporate bonds offer 7.75% yields, what yield must municipals offer for the investor to prefer them to corporate... Continue reading "Financial Calculations: Yields, Index Returns, and Security Pricing" »

The Mechanism of Photosynthesis and Energy Conversion

Photosynthesis (pronounced FOH-tə-SINTH-ə-sis)^[1] is a system of biological processes by which photopigment-bearing autotrophic organisms, such as most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, convert light energy—typically from sunlight—into the chemical energy necessary to fuel their metabolism. The term photosynthesis usually refers to oxygenic photosynthesis, a process that releases oxygen as a byproduct of water splitting.

Storing Chemical Energy and Maintaining the Atmosphere

Photosynthetic organisms store the converted chemical energy within the bonds of intracellular organic compounds (complex compounds containing carbon), typically carbohydrates like:

• Sugars (mainly glucose, fructose,