Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Baccalaureate

Ludwig Wittgenstein: Language, Meaning, and Philosophical Investigations

Ludwig Wittgenstein, born in Vienna in 1889 and died in Cambridge in 1951, is a pivotal figure in 20th-century philosophy. His thought belongs to the contemporary philosophical current known as analytic philosophy, characterized by its focus on language analysis. Wittgenstein's philosophy is typically divided into two main stages: the early philosophy, exemplified by the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, and the later philosophy, found in the influential Philosophical Investigations.

Wittgenstein's Core Subject: Language Games

In the context of this text, Wittgenstein's primary subject matter is the variety and diversity of language games that exist.

Key Ideas on Language and

The Lourdes Apparitions of 1858

In 1858, Bernadette Soubirous, a poor and illiterate fourteen-year-old, reported seeing the Virgin Mary 18 times. These apparitions occurred in the Massabielle Grotto, west of Lourdes, France, between February 11 and July 16.

The Virgin Mary's Messages Unfold

During these subsequent appearances, the Virgin Mary's message began to take shape, emphasizing several key themes:

• Invitation to Penance and Prayer: A call for penance and prayer for sinners (February 21).
• Embrace Evangelical Poverty: An invitation to live a more evangelical life of poverty.
• Request for Processions and a Chapel: A specific request for processions to the grotto and for a chapel to be built there (March 2).

The Miraculous Spring of Massabielle

On...

Introduction: The Generation of '98 and Modernism

Traditionally, authors of the late 19th and early 20th centuries have been divided into two groups: Noventayochistas and Modernists. This separation is now considered outdated, and both Modernism and the Generation of '98 (G98) are seen as two aspects of the movement of literary and poetic renewal of the early 20th century. The G98 denomination was applied by José Martínez Ruiz (Azorín) to a number of authors including Pío Baroja, Miguel de Unamuno, Ramiro de Maeztu, Ramón María del Valle-Inclán, Antonio Machado, and ultimately himself. The Generation of '98 is now understood to be part of Modernism, which was a more complex and rich movement.

In 1898, Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines,...

Tracheophytes: The Vascular Plants

Key Features of Tracheophytes

• Also known as vascular plants due to their specialized conducting vessels (xylem and phloem).
• Possess true roots, stems, and leaves.
• Exhibit autotrophic nutrition, producing their own food through photosynthesis.
• Develop three primary tissue systems: vascular, ground, and dermal tissues.
• Many species reproduce via seeds, though some reproduce by spores.

Classification of Tracheophytes

• Lycopsida
• Sphenopsida
• Psilopsida

Ferns: Non-Seed Vascular Plants

Characteristics of Ferns

• Comprise approximately 10,000 known species.
• Typically herbaceous and rhizomatous (possessing underground stems).
• Often thrive in warm, humid environments, particularly in tropical forests.
• Possess true roots, stems, and leaves

Word Formation: Building Blocks of Language

Key Word Transformations

• Adapt / Adaptation
• Clone / Cloning
• Design / Designer
• Develop / Developer / Development
• Discover / Discoverer / Discovery
• Idea
• Inspiration / Inspire
• Invent / Invention / Inventor
• Observation / Observe / Observer
• Replace / Replacement
• Research / Researcher
• Revolution / Revolutionary / Revolutionize
• Test / Tester

Common Prefixes

• Anti-: Antibiotic, Anti-globalization, Anti-social, Anti-technology
• Bio-: Biotechnology, Bioterrorism
• Inter-: Interactive, Intergalactic, International
• Micro-: Microorganism, Microwave
• Mis-: Misunderstand
• Multi-: Multicolored, Multi-ethnic, Multinational, Multi-talented, Multi-purpose, Multi-story
• Over-: Overproduce, Overspend, Overeat
• Pro-: Pro-GM, Pro-democracy, Probiotic
• Re-

Major Plot Developments and Their Significance

1. First Key Event: Andrea's Arrival in Barcelona

   When Andrea arrives in Barcelona and stays at her uncle's house. The act of arriving at the house dramatically changed her perception, sinking her into deep sadness.

2. Second Key Event: Meeting Ena

   When Andrea meets Ena, a beautiful and intelligent girl, at school. Thanks to Ena's friendship, Andrea can escape this stifling atmosphere.

3. Third Key Event: Discovery and Tragedy

   When Andrea discovers the romance between her uncle Juan and her friend Ena, followed by Juan's suicide. Andrea is embarrassed by her family, their economic scarcity, and their gray, oppressive, and sad life. She is unwilling for any of her household's issues to affect her friendships.

4. Fourth

Verb Alternations in English

The body-part possessor ascension alternation is characterized by a change in the expression of a possessed body part. The possessed body part may be expressed as the direct object of the verb (e.g., Margaret cut Bill’s arm), or the possessor may be expressed as the object of the verb with the possessed body part expressed in a prepositional phrase (e.g., Margaret cut Bill on the arm).

Examples:

• NPagent Verb [NP’s body-part]theme: Margaret cut [Bill’s arm].
• B-p possessor ascension construction: NPagent Verb [NPtheme] [on the body-part]: Margaret cut [Bill] [on the arm].

The body-part possessor ascension requires a sub-event ACT that involves contact. Consequently, "break" verbs typically do not participate in this...

Azorín's Literary Innovations and Evolution

His texts, rather than traditional novels, marked a significant break with the 19th-century conception of the genre.

Azorín's Conception of the Novel

Azorín challenged traditional notions of movement and time. His narrative is divided into snapshots that form materialized tables in disjointed sections, often scattering the reader's attention.

In his narrative, Azorín conducted a deep analysis of perception. He was influenced by a diverse range of fields, including:

• Philosophy
• Literature
• Impressionist painting
• Photography
• Film
• Journalism
• Modern telegraphic writing

These influences helped him freeze the moment and capture the immediate impression.

In his early works, Azorín displayed a violent rebellion against...

Institutionalization of the Francoist Regime: The Organic Laws

The dictator, who concentrated all power, assumed the constitutional role. Gradually, various organizational laws were approved, forming what came to be known as the Fundamental Laws of the Regime:

• Labour Law (1938)

  This law prohibited free trade unions. Following the Fascist model, the Union Organization was set up as the single trade union controlled by the Falange.

• Constitutive Act of the Cortes (1942)

  The Cortes were elected by indirect suffrage based on various corporations: the family, the municipality, and the union. In practice, these were rigged elections, and elected representatives were those favored by the regime.

• Fuero de los Españoles (Jurisdiction of the Spanish, 1945)

PSOE (Spanish Socialist Workers' Party)

Founded by Pablo Iglesias in Madrid on May 2, 1879. Since its inception, the party aimed to unite the Spanish industrial proletariat under Marxist ideology, later evolving towards a social democratic orientation.

UGT (General Workers' Union)

Founded by Pablo Iglesias in Barcelona on August 12, 1888. This Spanish labor union also evolved from a Marxist to a social democratic orientation, similar to the PSOE.

Antonio Maura (1853-1925)

A prominent Spanish politician and lawyer, he served five times as President of the Council of Ministers of Spain and head of government. During his tenure, Maura was determined to end caciquismo (chieftaincy), encouraged Spain's relations with Britain and France, and initiated...