Notes, summaries, assignments, exams, and problems for Arts and Humanities

The Age of Realism

Historical Context

The age of Realism has its roots in the revolutionary movement of 1848. The bourgeoisie abandoned the revolutionary spirit, seeking stability and moderation. Industrial growth occurred alongside the rise of great colonial empires in Africa and Asia. In Spain, the bourgeois revolution of 1868 failed, and in 1874 the Bourbon monarchy was restored, beginning the historical period of the Restoration, where the realist novel flourished.

Scientific and Technical Progress

Scientific research made great progress during this era. Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species and The Descent of Man. In the field of technology, the telegraph and steamships emerged.

Realist Literature

The bourgeoisie abandoned Romantic... Continue reading "19th Century Literature: Realism, Naturalism & Romantic Poetry" »

Journalistic Texts

Types of Journalistic Texts

The following are some common types of journalistic texts, categorized by their purpose and style:

• News: An objective account of a fact. The headline highlights the most important aspect of the story.
• Report: An informative text prepared by the newspaper's documentation service.
• Story: Combines information and interpretation, as the journalist presents facts as they have witnessed them.
• Chronicle: Relates current events and provides an analysis of them.
• Interview: The reproduction of a dialogue between a journalist and a person.
• Grandstand: A newspaper article in which a known figure outlines their ideas or opinions on an issue linked to the present.
• Column: An opinion piece signed by a regular newspaper

Social Influence on Gender and Emotions

From a young age, society shapes our understanding of gender and emotions. Societal pressures often encourage women to be more emotional, while men are expected to be more aggressive and physical. This early characterization influences children's play and behavior, with girls often engaging in gentle, emotional games, and boys in more physical and violent ones.

The Anguish of Separateness

Separateness is a source of human anguish, leading to feelings of isolation and helplessness. This isolation can feel like an 'asylum,' preventing genuine connection with others. The story of Adam and Eve illustrates this; upon realizing their nakedness and difference (being of different sexes), they felt shame and guilt,... Continue reading "Societal Impact on Gender, Emotions, and Human Connection" »

Medieval Period (13th and 14th Centuries)

The Medieval period saw advances in the Reconquista and strong literary development, exemplified by Gonzalo de Berceo. This era focused on verse and religious subjects with a didactic purpose.

• Cuaderna Vía: Stanza formed by four monorhyme verses.
• Alexandrine Verse: Verse of fourteen syllables.
• Celestina: Marks a departure from medieval ideals, reflecting the spirit of the time.

Renaissance (16th Century)

The Italian Influence and Realism

The Renaissance, originating in Italy during the 16th century (Siglos de Oro), marked a rebirth of classical learning, emphasizing change, human development, and natural elegance.

• Garcilaso de la Vega: Noble warrior and poet known for his eleven-syllable verse, sonnets, and

Major Representatives of Italian Classical Painting (XVI)

The High Renaissance in Italian classical painting (16th century) marks the culmination and full maturity of Renaissance art. Rome replaced Florence as the artistic center and became the cradle of classicism. Venice also emerged as a major artistic focus.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519)

A perfect example of Renaissance humanism, Leonardo made significant contributions in the field of painting, including:

• Setting the classical language, seeking visual beauty, formal correctness, proportion, size, balance, and harmony.
• Introducing a sensory perception of nature, employing new techniques in the representation of reality determined by light and distance.

Key techniques developed by Leonardo include:... Continue reading "High Renaissance Masters: Italian Painting and Classicism (16th Century)" »

The Foundations of Islamic Civilization and Art

Historical Context of Islamic Civilization

The Islamic civilization originated from the momentum of the new religion preached by Muhammad and his ability to unite the nomadic peoples of the Arabian Peninsula. Its architectural definition begins in the Umayyad period, marked by Byzantine influence, where the fundamental model of the mosque (patio, prayer hall, mihrab) was established. The civilization's historical span often concludes with the period of the Ottoman Turks.

Islamic Periods in Spain

In Spain, the most significant periods include the Caliphate period and the Nasrid period. These eras were situated between the period of the Taifa kingdoms and the subsequent rule of the Almoravids and Almohads.... Continue reading "Key Elements of Islamic Civilization, Architecture, and Art" »

Gestalt Principles: Perception and Marketing

According to the Gestalt school of thought, the content of perception is not simply the sum of the qualities corresponding to the projected image. The mind organizes information into simple forms, suggesting that basic and simple messages are most effective.

Figure-Ground Relationship

Perception requires contrast with the environment. Individuals organize stimuli into a figure and a background:

• Figure: The central element that captures attention, well-defined, solid, and in the foreground.
• Ground: Seen as poorly differentiated, indefinite, vague, and continuous.

While people tend to organize perceptions in terms of figure and ground, the decision of what is perceived as figure and what as background depends... Continue reading "Gestalt Principles: Enhance Perception and Marketing Strategies" »

The Double Articulation of Language

Language is characterized by its double articulation, meaning it is structured on two distinct levels:

• First Articulation: Monemes

  Monemes are the minimum units of meaning. They carry both lexical and grammatical information. For example, in the word cats, cat is a moneme carrying lexical meaning, and -s is a moneme carrying grammatical meaning (plurality).

• Second Articulation: Phonemes

  Phonemes are the minimum units without meaning. They are distinctive sound units that differentiate words. For example, the sounds /k/, /æ/, /t/, /s/ in cats are phonemes; individually, they have no meaning, but their combination creates meaningful units.

Properties of the Linguistic Sign

Language is a system composed of interdependent... Continue reading "Fundamentals of Language Structure and Meaning" »

Portrait of Pope Innocent X

This Baroque oil on canvas, painted around 1650, is a portrait located in Rome. During his second stay in Rome, Velázquez painted the Pope, demonstrating a loose technique and an exceptional ability to represent the psychological features of the sitter. The Pontiff himself recognized this mastery. The painting represents the Pope seated in a chair, dressed in white lace. Different shades of red are spread throughout the composition: in the chair, in the papal chasuble, and in his hat. The Pontiff holds in his hand a sheet of paper containing Velázquez's request. The portrait highlights the natural, incisive, and overwhelming face of Pope Innocent X.

Las Hilanderas (The Spinners or The Fable of Arachne)

This Baroque... Continue reading "Velázquez's Masterpieces: Innocent X, Las Hilanderas, and Las Meninas" »

Twentieth Century Novel Characteristics

It is characterized by significant technical innovations. The narrative technique experiences a dramatic renewal.

Narrator and Point of View

The narrator tends to be objective, acting as a film camera. It merely reports what the characters say or do. Some techniques favor the narrator's "disappearance":

• Dialogue gains importance and occupies much of the novel.
• The free indirect style is introduced, using the third person.
• First-person narrative is often used, allowing access to much information. This is taken to its extreme with interior monologue.
• Sometimes, second-person narrative is used, where the narrator tells "you" the facts, addressing either another person or the self.

Argument Focus

The argument is not... Continue reading "Novel Techniques: 20th Century and Post-War Spain" »