World War I: Causes, Development, and Aftermath

The Road to World War I: A Tense Europe

The period leading up to World War I was marked by an "armed peace," where European powers engaged in a massive military buildup, creating an atmosphere of fear and suspicion. Key players and their alliances included:

• France (FR): Sought closer ties with Russia (RS) and improved relations with Great Britain (GB).
• Russia (RS): Strengthened its alliance with France and fostered friendship with Great Britain.
• Great Britain (GB): Joined the Triple Entente with Russia and France.
• Austria-Hungary (AH): Maintained the Triple Alliance with Germany and Italy, seeking support.
• Italy (IT): Initially aligned with the Central Powers but later approached France and Great Britain.

The Balkan Crisis, triggered by Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, further escalated tensions. This led to conflicts in 1912 when Greece, Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Serbia declared war on the Ottoman Empire. The subsequent war among the victors in 1913 did not resolve the underlying issues, contributing to the outbreak of World War I.

Military Development and the Horrors of War

Germany's initial plan involved a swift offensive against France, aiming to capture Paris. However, the German advance was halted at the Marne River, leading to the establishment of a vast network of trenches stretching over a thousand kilometers. This marked the beginning of a brutal war of attrition, characterized by short-range offensives and devastating battles. The Battle of Verdun stands out as one of the most horrific examples of this period. The introduction of new weapons, such as grenades and flamethrowers, intensified the carnage.

Consequences of the War

Most belligerent countries adopted a planned war economy, directed by the state. This increased the power of organized labor. Governments resorted to printing money, leading to inflation. The United States emerged as the primary beneficiary of the war. In Europe, a general feeling of chaos and a desire for greater comfort prevailed. The Peace of Paris, a series of treaties signed after the war, aimed to address the danger of the Russian Revolution, control Germany, and restore territories, while also considering the interests of the victors. The United States took a leading role in international relations.

The Rise of the USSR and Stalin's Dictatorship

The construction of the USSR involved a series of measures implemented by Lenin, including land confiscations, allowing peasants to freely dispose of their products, and returning small industries to private hands. This led to increased production and improved supply. Following Lenin's death, Stalin marginalized and expelled Trotsky and other political leaders, establishing an absolute personal dictatorship characterized by:

• Personality Cult: Exalting the leader through praise and propaganda.
• One-Party Doctrine: Transforming Marxism-Leninism into a religious-like ideology.
• Mass Party: Basing the dictatorship on a mass party tinged with Russian nationalism.
• Socialism in One Country: A doctrine coined in the international arena.
• Regime of Terror: Employing fear and repression to maintain control.

Stalin's economic policy was authoritarian and centralized, aiming to rapidly industrialize the country at any cost. This involved establishing five-year plans, collectivizing agriculture, and prioritizing heavy industry.

The League of Nations

The League of Nations was established as an international body to ensure world peace. However, it faced several challenges, including resistance from victorious powers to rehabilitate defeated nations and widespread discontent with post-war agreements.