World War I: A Comprehensive Analysis of its Origins and Aftermath
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Causes of World War I (1914-1918)
Colonialism and Nationalism
- Rivalry Between Colonial Powers: Conflicts stemming from imperial rivalries were particularly evident in Morocco (1905-1911). Germany, which had few colonies in the area, sought to challenge the influence of France and Great Britain. These tensions, while not directly triggering the war, remained latent and contributed to the outbreak of World War I.
- Nationalist Exaltation: The Franco-Prussian War (1871) resulted in France's defeat and the loss of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. This fueled French nationalism and a desire for revenge. Both nations sought to establish continental hegemony in Europe. Germany and Great Britain also maintained a fierce rivalry for control of international maritime trade routes.
- The Balkan Conflict: This area of Europe was a major focus of tension. Various peoples subjected to the Turkish Empire had achieved independence through wars: Greece, Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, and Montenegro. Austria sought to dominate the region. Serbia accused Austria of supporting anti-Serbian groups within the empire. Pro-Serbian groups were active, and Russia intended to protect Serbia to strengthen its position in the area. In 1908, when Austria occupied the territory of Bosnia, Russia made it clear that it was willing to confront Austria in case of conflict.
Armaments and Alliances
The major powers' arms race was a significant factor. States invested heavily in manufacturing weapons, building warships, and training their troops. In 1882, Austria-Hungary and Italy signed the Triple Alliance. France, wary of Germany's military might, allied with Russia and improved relations with Great Britain. These three powers eventually signed the Triple Entente in 1907.
Outbreak of War
On June 28, 1914, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was assassinated in Sarajevo. The assassination was carried out by a student linked to Serbian nationalists. Austria declared war on Serbia, convinced it was time to end the perceived threat. Russia then intervened to protect its Serbian ally, and Germany declared war on Russia and France. Within a week, most European countries were at war.
The Great War
World War I became known as the "Great War." The war was long and had very different stages.
- Guerrilla Warfare: The German army attacked France, entering through Belgium and Luxembourg, hoping for a quick victory. Initially, the tactics seemed to work, but in early September 1914, the French and British armies managed to reorganize and stop the German advance at the Battle of the Marne (September 6-13, 1914).
- Trench Warfare: Trenches were dug from Switzerland to the North Sea, and a very long phase of the war began. It became necessary to seek new allies to contribute more troops. Italy intervened in 1915 on the side of the Allies (France and Great Britain), and Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire aided the Central Powers. In 1916, the Germans launched an offensive to break the French front at the Battle of Verdun.
1917 and the End of the War
During 1917, the Bolshevik Revolution triumphed in Russia. The revolutionaries, preoccupied with internal problems, made peace with Germany and withdrew from the war (Peace of Brest-Litovsk). In principle, this favored the Germans. However, Russia's withdrawal was offset by the intervention of the United States, which decided to enter the war after the sinking of the transatlantic liner Lusitania by a German submarine.
The Organization of Peace
In January 1919, a conference was held in Paris to establish the conditions of peace. Thirty-two countries attended, but the decisions were made by the four major victors: the United States, France, Great Britain, and Italy.
The Treaty of Versailles
The most important peace treaty was signed with Germany at Versailles, and the victors imposed harsh conditions:
- Germany was declared solely responsible for the outbreak of the conflict and was forced to pay heavy war reparations for the destruction caused.
- Its army and navy were almost completely dismantled, and it was forbidden to rearm.
- Its colonial empire was taken away and divided between France and the United Kingdom.
- The territories of Alsace and Lorraine were returned to France, two cantons to Belgium, and Schleswig to Denmark. Posen and part of West Prussia were delivered to Poland.
Germany considered the peace treaty to be humiliating.