The Tumultuous Reign of Isabel II: A Concise History

Three Triumphs of Liberalism

During the minority of Isabel II, a regency was established, with Maria Cristina as the first regent. This period coincided with the Carlist War, and the liberals allied with the regency were divided into two groups: the moderates, who supported strengthening the King's position and implementing limited reforms, and the progressives, who advocated for a more extensive policy of reforms. Maria Cristina initially conceded power to the moderates, but due to protests and military uprisings, she was forced to hand over the government to the progressives.

In the following years, the progressive Mendizabal abolished remnants of the old regime, such as the confiscation of church property, and enacted the Constitution of 1837. This constitution established census suffrage and granted more powers to the crown. In 1840, Maria Cristina resigned due to clashes with the progressives, and General Espartero, of progressive ideas, took over. His authoritarian rule was disliked by both moderates and progressives, leading to his resignation. Isabel II was proclaimed queen at 13 years old.

The Moderate Decade

During the decade of Isabel II's reign, the government was dominated by moderates and conservatives. General Narvaez, a strong figure, led several governments. In 1845, a new constitution was approved, limiting voting rights to the wealthiest. The state was organized centrally, civil and criminal codes were standardized across territories, and fiscal reforms were implemented. Among the progressives, a split occurred, leading to the formation of the democratic party, which demanded universal suffrage, and the republicans, who favored the establishment of a republic. The Vicalvaro uprising ended this stage.

The Progressive Biennium and the Liberal Union

After the Vicalvaro uprising, power shifted to the progressives, led by Espartero and supported by O'Donnell and the liberals. The union government launched a new process of secularization and promoted railway development. This period was marked by economic crises and labor protests, which led the Queen to withdraw her support. Between 1856 and 1866, progressive and liberal union governments alternated, with General Narvaez playing a significant role. This era saw rapid economic growth.

The Final Crisis of Isabel II's Reign

The final years of Isabel II's reign were marked by a major crisis. Economic problems led to riots, progressives, republicans, and democrats were excluded from power, and there was discontent even within the conservative ranks. The bourgeoisie and the military distanced themselves from the regime, and the Queen's increasingly unpopular lifestyle further fueled the crisis. In 1866, progressives, liberal unionists, democrats, and republicans signed the Ostend Pact, agreeing on the expulsion of the Bourbons.

The Revolution of 1868 and the Monarchy of Amadeo I

In 1868, a pronouncement led by Generals Prim and Serrano aimed to replace Isabel II. Revolutionary juntas were formed, and the revolution succeeded without bloodshed, leading to the Queen's departure from Spain. Serrano presided over an interim government, and the courts approved the Constitution of 1869. This constitution included a broad declaration of rights and introduced universal male suffrage. General Prim was tasked with finding a new king for Spain.

Amadeus of Savoy, a modern and democratic king, was chosen. However, his position was weak. Conservatives preferred an undemocratic monarch, and the Church opposed his progressive ideas. During his reign, a new Carlist War and an insurrection in Cuba erupted, leading Amadeo to resign.

The First Republic

In the absence of suitable candidates for the throne, the courts proclaimed the First Republic. Facing serious national problems, political groups were divided between monarchists and republicans, with the latter further split between those who favored a federal republic and those who preferred a unitary one. The cantonalist movement led to the creation of independent republics in Cartagena and Malaga. The republic also faced the Third Carlist War and the Cuban War. General Pavia staged a coup and dissolved the Cortes in January 1874. General Serrano led the government for almost a year, maintaining republican forms but abandoning the spirit of reform and modernization. In December 1874, a new coup restored the Bourbon dynasty.