Spanish War of Independence and Liberal Revolution

The Crisis of 1808, the War of Independence, and the Dawn of the Liberal Revolution

Under Carlos IV, ministerial despotism took hold in Spain, with the prime minister wielding true power. The French Revolution sent shockwaves of concern throughout Europe, particularly in Spain due to its proximity to France and the familial ties between their monarchs. Spanish foreign policy, traditionally aligned with France through the Family Pacts since the War of Succession, was forced to reassess its stance. Initially, Prime Minister Floridablanca, appointed by Carlos IV, maintained a policy of watchful neutrality towards France and suppressed revolutionary propaganda. However, under the influence of Queen Maria Luisa of Parma, Manuel Godoy ascended to the premiership in 1792, effectively ruling Spain until 1808.

Godoy's early policies focused on preserving the life of French King Louis XVI. Despite this, France declared war on Spain in March 1795. The Peace of Basle restored Spain's conquered territories, while Spain ceded Santo Domingo to France. Godoy was subsequently titled the Prince of Peace. The First Treaty of San Ildefonso, signed in 1796, bound Spain to France in a policy of mutual defense and cooperation, leading to conflict with England and its ally, Portugal. This alliance had dire consequences for Spain, including attacks on Spanish and British ships and the devastating defeat at Trafalgar in 1805, crippling Spain's maritime power.

In 1807, the Treaty of Fontainebleau, orchestrated by Napoleon and Godoy, allowed French troops passage through Spain to conquer Portugal. Napoleon used this as a pretext to station troops throughout Spain, raising suspicions of an impending occupation. Godoy proposed relocating the royal family to Andalusia or America. However, riots erupted in Aranjuez in March 1808, fueled by a faction supporting Crown Prince Ferdinand, who vehemently opposed Godoy's power. This faction exploited popular discontent, leading to the storming of Godoy's palace. Forced to dismiss Godoy and abdicate in favor of Ferdinand, Carlos IV informed Napoleon, who then demanded assistance in reclaiming the throne.

The Spanish people's armed resistance to Napoleon's occupation was triggered by the events in Bayonne:

• Napoleon lured Carlos IV and Ferdinand VII to Bayonne, exploiting the internal conflicts within the Spanish royal family.
• On May 2, 1808, a popular uprising in Madrid was brutally suppressed by French troops.
• Napoleon installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as King of Spain in Bayonne.
• Following the Bayonne abdication and the Madrid uprising, the insurrection spread throughout French-occupied territories.

The War of Independence was not only a liberation struggle against a foreign invader but also a civil war, as a significant portion of the population accepted Joseph Bonaparte's legitimacy. Several factions emerged during the conflict:

• The pro-French side supporting Joseph Bonaparte, comprised of opportunists, reformists, and those who sought peaceful modernization.
• The popular resistance, united in their rejection of French rule and support for Ferdinand VII, encompassed:
  • Liberals, who sought to establish a new form of monarchy.
  • Absolutists, who supported Ferdinand VII as an absolute monarch.

Rebel forces established local governing boards, which later formed the Supreme Central Junta to direct the war effort and govern unoccupied territories. In 1810, the Junta transferred its powers to a Regency Council. The war involved the Napoleonic army, Joseph Bonaparte's supporters, the Spanish rebels, British forces, and popular guerrilla fighters. The conflict can be divided into three phases:

1. Until November 1808: Spanish resistance achieved significant victories, notably at Bailen (July 19), preventing the French occupation of Andalusia and forcing Joseph I to flee Madrid for Vitoria.
2. From November 1808 to January 1812: Napoleon personally led campaigns in Spain.
3. From 1812 to the war's end: As the Napoleonic empire faced increasing challenges in Europe, the Spanish rebels and British forces gained momentum, pushing the French into retreat.

The Treaty of Valençay, signed in late 1813, saw Napoleon recognize Ferdinand VII as King of Spain.