Spanish Foreign Policy in the 17th Century: Habsburg Era

Reign of Philip III (1598-1621)

At the beginning of his reign, Philip III inherited a complex geopolitical landscape: peace with France, ongoing war with England, and a theoretical peace with the Dutch Republic, as the Southern Netherlands had been ceded to his sister, Isabel Clara Eugenia. Despite initial peace, Spain soon became re-engaged in the Eighty Years' War.

The death of Queen Elizabeth I led to peace with England under the new king, James I, who also made peace with Spain. Some painful defeats, such as the Battle of the Dunes, fostered an understanding with the Dutch Republic. This resulted in the Twelve Years' Truce, signed in 1609, granting Spain nine years of peace.

In 1618, the Thirty Years' War began. Spain sent troops to aid their Austrian relatives against the Bohemian rebels. Spanish troops occupied the Palatinate, further involving Spain in the conflict. Truces were maintained with the Ottoman Empire, while Algerian pirates continued to raid the Spanish coast.

Reign of Philip IV (1621-1665)

Shortly into Philip IV's reign, the Twelve Years' Truce expired, and Spain chose not to renew it. The reasons were multifaceted:

• The Army of Flanders was costly and largely inactive.
• The Dutch had used the truce to infiltrate Portuguese colonies.
• Philip IV and his chief minister, the Count-Duke of Olivares, believed that ending the truce would restore Spain's reputation.

Consequently, the Spanish general Ambrogio Spinola initiated a successful campaign, culminating in the Siege of Breda. During this period, a brief war also occurred between Spain and England. However, the English attack on Cadiz failed, and England soon became embroiled in its own internal conflicts.

In 1627, Spain suffered an economic and military setback when the Dutch captured the Spanish treasure fleet, seizing its valuable cargo. This event also damaged Spanish prestige, leading to the execution of the fleet's admiral.

Until the 1630s, France was preoccupied with its internal struggles, particularly the conflict between Louis XIII and his mother. However, under the influence of Cardinal Richelieu, France's growing power inevitably led to conflict with Spain.

First Franco-Spanish War (1635-1659)

The initial phase of the Franco-Spanish War was indirect, centered on the War of the Mantuan Succession, where both nations supported different candidates. Ultimately, the French candidate prevailed, but the war continued.

The Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War forced Spain to exert further military efforts. An army led by Philip IV's brother, Cardinal-Infante Ferdinand, defeated the Swedes at the Battle of Nördlingen, marking Spain's last major victory in the war. However, France soon abandoned its passive stance and declared war on Spain.

France's declaration of war initiated a 24-year struggle. Initially, Spain achieved some successes, even threatening Paris. However, France's superior resources eventually led to a series of French victories, such as those at Rocroi and Lens. Simultaneously, revolts erupted in Portugal and Catalonia. While Catalonia eventually returned to Spanish rule, Portugal permanently gained its independence.

In 1648, Spain signed the Peace of Westphalia, recognizing Dutch independence and withdrawing from the conflict. This, coupled with the outbreak of the Fronde in France, allowed Spain a brief respite and the opportunity to recruit a prominent French leader.

The conflict shifted decisively when Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protector of England, conquered Jamaica and intercepted the Spanish treasure fleet. Exhausted, Spain signed the Treaty of the Pyrenees, ceding Roussillon and Cerdanya to France. Additionally, Louis XIV married the Spanish Infanta, Maria Theresa. Philip IV attempted to reconquer Portugal but suffered two significant defeats and abandoned the project before his death. However, he did not recognize Portugal's independence.

Reign of Charles II (1665-1700)

Under Charles II, Spanish policy underwent a radical shift. Spain allied with the Dutch Republic, England, and much of Germany to counter the aggressive policies of Louis XIV. Spain was attacked by Louis XIV, who claimed he had not received Maria Theresa's dowry and was therefore entitled to territorial compensation.

In subsequent years, Spain lost Franche-Comté, Luxembourg, and important territories in the Spanish Netherlands. However, towards the end of his reign, Louis XIV relinquished many of his conquests to facilitate the succession of Philip of Anjou to the Spanish throne. Upon Charles II's death, Philip V peacefully ascended to the Spanish throne and was recognized by the European powers.