Spanish Civil War: From Republic to Dictatorship
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The Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
The Second Spanish Republic, established in 1931, implemented numerous reforms but struggled to solidify its position as an alternative to the Restoration's political system. The victory of the left-wing Popular Front in February 1936 led to an acceleration of reforms initiated during the previous reformist period. However, this move faced staunch opposition from the right, who were determined to prevent a military coup. On July 17th, Generals Mola, Franco, Fanjul, and others initiated an uprising in Morocco, which spread to the Peninsula the following day. The coup succeeded in less than half of Spain but failed in major cities and industrial centers, triggering a devastating civil war that lasted nearly three years.
Military Developments
Madrid
The rebels needed the arrival of the Moroccan army, the most experienced due to the ongoing war in Morocco. The fleet controlled Gibraltar. Germany and Italy assisted in transporting rebel troops to the Peninsula. These troops formed columns that conquered parts of Andalusia, Extremadura, and Toledo, eventually reaching the outskirts of Madrid. Faced with an imminent Republican attack, the government relocated to Valencia.
In Madrid, the rebels encountered unexpected resistance from the population, who fought fiercely in the University City and the Bridge of the French. The Defense Board, chaired by General Miaja, successfully defended Madrid. In the following months, Franco's attempts to take Madrid failed, leading him to abandon the idea.
The North
After failing to capture Madrid, Franco aimed to conquer Vizcaya and Asturias. Mola had already conquered Guipúzcoa, isolating the Basque Country from France. The bombing of Guernica and other towns marked the first massive attacks against the civilian population. Republican offensives launched to relieve pressure on the North proved largely ineffective. The Republic lost a significant industrial area, territory, and population.
The Levante
Following the conquest of the North, Franco revived his plan to take Madrid, but the Republicans preempted him with an offensive in Teruel. After two months of intense fighting, the Republicans were severely weakened. Franco launched a powerful counterattack, conquering all of Aragon and reaching the Mediterranean, effectively splitting Republican Spain in two. He then initiated an offensive to capture Valencia and Castellón, aiming to end the uprising. The Republicans launched an offensive to assist but were defeated. Catalonia fell, and Franco decided to attack the weakened Republicans. Nearly half a million Spaniards, including President Azaña and numerous artists and intellectuals like Antonio Machado, went into exile.
The Fall of Catalonia
The fall of Catalonia emboldened sectors seeking surrender to Franco, leading to a revolt against Negrín's government in March. The National Defense Council offered to negotiate a surrender agreement, but Franco refused. On March 28th, Franco's forces entered Madrid, and on April 1st, the final victory dispatch was signed at the Nationalist headquarters in Burgos.
Political Developments
Republican Zone
In the Republican zone, representative institutions and the rule of law were maintained until the end. Only in February 1939 did the government declare a state of war, granting prominence to the army and suspending constitutional guarantees.
Union and party militias replaced the police and courts, carrying out a harsh crackdown against suspected fascists.
Largo Caballero formed a government comprising all Popular Front forces, ending revolutionary unrest and replacing the ineffective militias with the Popular Army.
Negrín fully recovered authority. A series of offensives were launched with the intention of achieving victory, but they failed. Afterward, he adopted a more realistic policy, embodied in his 13-point program, which he used to attempt negotiations with Franco, but Franco refused.
Rebel Zone
From the outset, the military imposed a state of war, aiming to establish a military dictatorship.
Cabanellas was replaced by Mola as the supreme chief of a Board of National Defense. The board implemented wartime regulations that resulted in the murder of thousands of Republicans for their political beliefs.
In September 1936, Franco was appointed Generalissimo of all forces, Head of the Spanish Government, and Leader of Spain. He created the Technical Board of the State. He unified the right-wing forces that had supported the uprising into the FET de las JONS. The Church supported the uprising, considering it a crusade. The basic lines of the new state were designed, including:
- 1st Law: Labor Charter
- 2nd Law: Law of Political Responsibilities
The end of the war marked the beginning of a long dictatorship.