Spain: Political Instability and the Rise of Dictatorship (1902-1931)

The Spanish Economy and Social Structure

The economy remained primarily based on agriculture, though specific regions like Catalonia, the Basque Country, and Madrid began developing a solid industrial network. Society remained deeply unequal:

• A majority of peasants and workers: Living in very poor conditions.
• A small, growing middle class.
• An upper class: Enjoying all the privileges of wealth and high society.

The System of Alternation: Continuity and Crisis (1902–1917)

The system of political alternation continued under Antonio Maura (Conservative Party) and José Canalejas (Liberal Party). The war with Morocco became the primary national issue, as the inhabitants of the Rif—a Spanish protectorate—remained in constant rebellion.

In 1909, the recruitment of Catalan reserve troops for the war provoked riots in Barcelona, which were severely suppressed by the army (the Tragic Week). Following this, the pact of alternation between parties was broken.

The Crisis of 1917

The crisis of 1917 was fueled by three main factors:

• The Army: Demanded higher pay.
• Catalan Nationalists: Called for a decentralized state with autonomies.
• Left-wing parties and unions: Organized a general strike to protest the miserable conditions of the working class.

Instability and the Coup (1919–1923)

The situation deteriorated between 1919 and 1923 due to:

• The economic crisis following the First World War.
• The influence of the Russian Revolution, which provoked continuous uprisings.
• The Battle of Annual in the Moroccan War, which caused 10,000 deaths.

As the government weakened and the King lost authority, General Primo de Rivera organized a coup d’état on December 13, 1923, imposing a dictatorship.

The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera and the End of the Monarchy

Under the military government of Primo de Rivera, the constitution was suspended, parliament was dissolved, political parties were banned, and working-class movements were repressed. However, the regime achieved a military victory in the Alhucemas Landing (1925).

In 1925, he organized a new government with civilian politicians. Nevertheless, the economic crisis of 1929—characterized by increased unemployment, the reorganization of the working-class movement, and general opposition—led to his resignation in 1930.

The lack of support for the monarchy was confirmed in the municipal elections of 1931. The Republican Party triumphed in major cities, leading Alfonso XIII to abandon the country. The Second Republic was proclaimed on April 14, 1931.