Spain's Crisis of Liberalism: 1898-1931
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The Crisis of Liberalism (1898-1931)
The Crisis of '98
In 1898, the United States declared war on Spain following the sinking of the battleship Maine in Havana. The defeat signified the loss of Spain's last colonies, a disaster that caused frustration among the Spanish political class and pessimism among intellectuals. This gave rise to Regenerationism, advocated by Joaquín Costa, who proposed reforms to modernize the country, overcome backwardness, and eliminate caciquismo (political bossism).
The Constitutional Reign of Alfonso XIII (1902-1923)
In 1902, Alfonso XIII ascended to the throne. The Constitution of 1876 remained in effect, maintaining the system of alternating governments. The Conservative Party, led by Maura after Cánovas, and the Liberal Party, led by Canalejas after Sagasta, continued to dominate. New leaders, influenced by Regenerationism, attempted to reform political life. Maura tried to curb caciquismo, while Canalejas pursued a policy of decentralization. A controversial measure was the Law of the Padlock, which prohibited the establishment of new religious orders in Spain.
The Catalan and Basque bourgeoisie began to support nationalist parties. Parts of the middle class and workers voted for Republicans and the Socialist Party, and labor unions gained significant strength. By 1909, the Restoration system was showing signs of crisis, leading to its eventual disappearance.
The Tragic Week and Subsequent Crises
- In 1909, the Tragic Week occurred, a popular insurrection in Barcelona triggered by the deployment of troops to the war in Morocco, primarily composed of members of the working class who were poorly paid.
- The crisis of 1917 coincided with military protests and a political and union movement that called for a general strike.
- From 1919 to 1923, Spain experienced intense social violence. The influence of the Russian Revolution radicalized the worker's movement, aiming to achieve political, economic, and social revolution. Governments and employers responded with violence to suppress this movement.
Faced with this crisis, all bourgeois political parties refused to collaborate in a government of national concentration.
The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera (1923-1930)
Amidst the ongoing crisis, the defeat at Annual occurred. The opposition demanded an investigation to determine who was responsible for the disaster. In 1923, General Primo de Rivera, with the King's consent, staged a coup d'état. He suspended the Constitution, dissolved Parliament, and banned political parties and unions. He also brought an end to the war in Morocco. The dictatorship maintained itself until 1930, supported by the economic prosperity of the 1920s. By 1927, intellectuals, students, nationalist groups, and workers began to criticize the authoritarian regime. Faced with this opposition, Primo de Rivera resigned in January 1930. Alfonso XIII then sought to form a government that would restore the Constitution and call for elections. Republican, socialist, and Catalan monarchist politicians signed the Pact of San Sebastián in August 1930, aiming to jointly participate in elections to establish a republic.
The Reformist Biennium (1931-1933)
Reforms
Between 1931 and 1933, Azaña served as President of the Government and continued reformist efforts, addressing issues such as:
- Agrarian Reform: Aimed to transform the Spanish land structure to improve agricultural production and the lives of peasants through the expropriation of large, uncultivated estates and their redistribution among landless laborers. However, the government did not allocate enough funds for this, exacerbating conflict in the countryside.
- Autonomy for Catalonia: Granted autonomy to Catalonia with the approval of the Statute of Núria and the creation of the Generalitat.
- Military Reform: Required military commanders to swear allegiance to the Republic and offered retirement to those who did not, reducing the number of officers and ensuring their loyalty.
- Labor Reform: Established minimum wages and accident insurance to improve the lives of workers.
- Educational Reform: Constructed 10,000 new primary schools and increased the education budget by 50%.
- Religious Reform: Legalized civil marriage and divorce.